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OWING to its position at the antipodes of the civilised world, Australia has been longer a terra incognita than any other region of the same extent. Its first discovery is involved in considerable doubt, from confusion of the names which were applied by the earlier navigators and geographers to the Australasian coasts.

The ancients were somehow impressed with the idea of a Terra Australis which was one day to be revealed. The Phoenician mariners had pushed through the outlet of the Red Sea to eastern Africa, the Persian Gulf, and the coasts of India and Sumatra. But the geographer Ptolemy, in the 2nd century, still conceived the Indian Ocean to be an inland sea, bounded on the south by an unknown land, which connected the Chersonesus Aurea (Malay Peninsula) with the promontory of Prasum in eastern Africa. This erroneous notion prevailed in medieval Europe, although some travellers like Marco Polo heard rumours in China of large insular countries to the southeast.

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The investigations of Mr. R. H. Major make it appear probable that the Australian mainland was known as "Great Java" to the Portuguese early in the sixteenth century; and the following passage in the Descriptionis Ptolemaica Augmentum of Cornelius Wytfliet, printed at Louvain in 1598, is perhaps the first distinct account that occurs of the country: - "The Australis Terra is the most southern of all lands, and is separated from New Guinea by a narrow strait. Its shores are hitherto but little known, since, after one

[1508-1770 A.D.] voyage and another, that route has been deserted, and seldom is the country visited, unless when sailors are driven there by storms. The Australis Terra begins at one or two degrees from the equator and is ascertained by some to De of so great an extent, that if it were thoroughly explored it would be regarded as a fifth part of the world."

It was in 1606 that Torres, with a ship commissioned by the Spanish government of Peru, parted from his companion Quiros (after their discovery of Espiritu Santo and the New Hebrides), and sailed from east to west through the strait which bears his name; while in the same year the peninsula of Cape York was touched at by a vessel called the Duyfhen or Dove from the Dutch colony of Bantam in Java, but this was understood at the time to form a part of the neighbouring island of New Guinea. The Dutch continued their attempts to explore the unknown land, sending out in 1816 the ship Endraght, commanded by Dirk Hartog, which sailed along the west coast of Australia from lat. 26° 30' to 23° S. This expedition left on an islet near Shark's Bay a record of its visit engraved on a tin plate, which was found there in 1801. The Pera and Arnhem, Dutch vessels from Amboyna, in 1618 explored the Gulf of Carpentaria, giving to its westward peninsula, on the side opposite to Cape York, the name of Arnhem Land. The name of Carpentaria was also bestowed on this vast gulf in compliment to Peter Carpenter, then governor of the Dutch East India Company. In 1627 the Guldene Zeepard, carrying Peter Nuyts to the embassy in Japan, sailed along the south coast from Cape Leeuwin, and sighted the whole shore of the Great Bight. But alike on the northern and southern seaboard, the aspect of New Holland, as it was then called, presented an uninviting appearance.

An important era of discovery began with Tasman's voyage of 1642. He, too, sailed from Batavia; but, first crossing the Indian Ocean to the Mauritius, he descended to the 44th parallel of S. lat., recrossing that ocean to the east. By taking this latter course he reached the island which now bears his name, but which he called Van Diemen's Land, after the Dutch governor of Batavia. In 1644 Tasman made another attempt, when he explored the northwest coast of Australia, from Arnhem Land to the 22nd degree of latitude, approaching the locality of Dirk Hartog's discoveries of 1616. He seems to have landed at Cape Ford, near Victoria River, also in Roebuck Bay, and again near Dampier's Archipelago. But the hostile attitude of the natives, whom he denounced as a malicious and miserable race of savages, prevented his seeing much of the new country; and for half a century after this no fresh discoveries were made.

The English made their first appearance on the Australian coast in 1688, when the northwestern shores were visited by the famous buccaneer Captain William Dampier, who spent five weeks ashore near Roebuck Bay. A few years later (1697) the Dutch organised another expedition under Vlamingh, who, first touching at Swan River on the west coast, sailed northward to Shark's Bay, where Hartog had been in 1616. Dampier, two years later, visited the same place, not now as a roving adventurer, but with a commission from the English admiralty to pursue his Australian researches. This enterprising navigator, in the narrative of his voyages, gives an account of the trees, birds, and reptiles he observed, and of his encounters with the natives. But he found nothing to invite a long stay. There was yet another Dutch exploring squadron on that coast in 1705, but the results were of little importance.

It was Captain Cook, in his voyages from 1769 to 1777, who communicated the most important discoveries, and first opened to European enterprise and

[1770-1798 A.D.]

settlement the Australasian coasts. In command of the bark Endeavour, 370 tons burden, and carrying 85 persons, amongst whom were Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, returning from the Royal Society's expedition to observe the transit of Venus, Cook visited both New Zealand ard New South Wales. He came upon the Australian mainland in April, 1770, at a point named after Lieutenant Hicks, who first sighted

it, on the shore of Gipps' Land, Victoria, S. lat., 38°, E. long. 148° 53'. From this point, in a coasting voyage not without peril when entangled in the barrier reefs of coral, the little vessel made its way up the whole length of the eastern sides of Australia, rounding Cape York, and crossing Torres Strait to New Guinea. In his second expedition of Australasian discovery, which was sent out in 1773, Cook's ship, the Resolute, started in company with the Adventure, commanded by Captain Furneaux. The two vessels separated, and Cook went to New Zealand, while Furneaux examined some parts of Tasmania and Bass Strait. The third voyage of Cook brought him, in 1777, both to Tasmania and to New Zealand.

WILLIAM DAMPIER

(1652-1715)

Next to Cook, twenty or thirty years after his time, the names of Bass and Flinders are justly honoured for continuing the work of maritime discovery he had so well begun. To their courageous and persevering efforts, begun at their private risk, is due the correct determination of the shape both of Tasmania and the neighbouring continent. The French admiral Entrecasteaux, in 1792, had made a careful examination of the inlets at the south of Tasmania, and in his opinion the opening between Tasmania and Australia was only a deep bay. It was Bass who discovered it to be a broad strait, with numerous small islands. Captain Flinders survived his friend Bass, having been associated with him in 1798 in this and other useful adventures. Flinders afterwards made a complete survey in detail of all the Australian coasts, except the west and northwest. He was captured, however, by the French during the war, and detained a prisoner in Mauritius for seven years.b

THE FOUNDING OF NEW SOUTH WALES

New South Wales, the oldest of the Australian group, was founded in 1788. The more immediate reason for its occupation arose from the necessity of finding an outlet for British criminals, who, until that time, had been sent to America. On the 13th of May, 1787, the "first fleet," as it has ever since been called, consisting of eleven vessels, sailed from Portsmouth. In these 348 free persons-officers, guards, women, children, etc., were embarked, together with 504 male and 192 female prisoners. Captain Arthur Phillip,

[1787-1806 A.D] R.N., was in charge of the expedition, which arrived after a tedious voyage of eight months.

The first attempt to land was made at Botany Bay, so named by Sir Joseph Banks from the profusion of wild flowers abounding there. The harbour was found to be spacious, but exposed to easterly gales, and the land, where it was not swampy, was composed of sand hills. It did not seem to be suitable for a permanent settlement, and Captain Phillip determined to select another site. He soon fixed upon the promontory where Sydney now stands, and there he disembarked on the 26th of January, 1788. Imme diately on his arrival, he endeavoured to make the infant settlement inde pendent of supplies from Europe, but his first attempts to farm at Parramatta, then called Rose Hill, were unsuccessfu..

Captain Phillip ruled with rare ability until 1792-often under circumstances of considerable difficulty. He was succeeded by Captain John Hunter, R.N., a man of firm character and of generally sound judgment. If he had met with more loyal co-operation from his officers he might have effected greater good. A few free settlers arrived, and agriculture made some progress.

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The rich district of the "Cow-pastures," about forty miles to the southwest of Sydney, was discovered by some cattle, which, having escaped from the herd, increased and multiplied. Two churches were built, one at Sydney and the other at Parramatta, the former oeing named St. Phillip - not in honour of the apostle, but of the first governor.

Captain Philip Gidley King was the third governor. Van Diemen's Land was now colonised as a penal settlement, and a futile attempt was made to settle at Port Phillip by Captain David Collins. Several free settlers arrived, and grants of farms upon the river Hawkesbury were made to them. For a time they prospered, out one of those floods, to which the rivers are so subject, destroyed £3,500 worth of produce. Danger of absolute starvation ensued, as this valley was the granary of the colony. Maize and flour sold at 2s. 6d. per pound. A 2 lb. loaf reached the price of 5s. For many months the inhabitants adopted stringent measures to restrict consumption. The growth of garden vegetables was encouraged. and sea-fishing was undertaken. The crisis had passed when Captain King's term of office expired. He left the colony in August, 1806.

Captain William Bligh, the hero of the mutiny of the Bounty, succeeded him. The fact that he had been unfortunate in his control of men should

[1807-1821 A.D.]

have warned the English government against his appointment to so difficult a charge as that of a penal settlement. Almost immediately upon his arrival he was involved in disputes with the officers of the New South Wales corps, whose conduct was in many respects open to censure. The measures which were adopted by Captain Bligh during the collision which ensued were, to say the least, ill-advised. The opposition to them culminated in an overt act of rebellion. The officers of the corps deposed him from his office on the 26th of January, 1808. He was placed on board the Porpoise, with the object of returning to England, but he lingered about Van Diemen's Land and the coast until the arrival of the newly appointed governor, Colonel Lachlan Macquarie.

The earlier difficulties of colonisation had now been surmounted. The state of the settlement was well described by Macquarie himself in his vindication of the policy from the aspersions cast upon him. He says that on his arrival:

"I found the colony barely emerging from infantile imbecility, and suffering from various privations and disabilities. The country impenetrable beyond forty miles from Sydney, agriculture in a yet anguishing state, commerce in its early dawn, revenue unknown, threatened with famine, the public buildings in a state of dilapidation and mouldering to decay, the few roads and bridges formerly constructed rendered almost impassable, the population in general oppressed by poverty, no public credit or private confidence, the morals of the great mass of the populace in the lowest state of debasement, and religious worship almost totally neglected. Such was the state of New South Wales when I took charge of its administration, on January 1st, 1810. I left it in February last (1821), reaping incalculable advantages from my extensive and important discoveries in all directions, including the supposed almost impassable barrier called the 'Blue Mountains,' to the westward of which are situated the fertile plains of Bathurst, and in all respects enjoying a state of private comfort and public prosperity which I trust will at least equal the expectation of his majesty's government." He goes on to say that in 1810 there were: population, 11,590, sheep, 25,888; cattle, 9,544; acres in cultivation, 7,615; and that in October, 1821, the population was 38,778; sheep, 290,158; cattle, 102,939; acres in cultivation, 32,267.

The means Macquarie adopted for the reformation and elevation of the prisoners formed matter for keen controversy. He invited to his table, and appointed as magistrates men from the convict population whom he supposed to be reformed. These and other marks of favour towards the emancipists were deeply resented by the free settlers and by the military, who then constituted society.

The controversy excited much interest in England, and Mr. John Bigge was sent out in 1819 with the fullest powers for investigation. Serious doubts were entertained in Downing Street, not only as to the wisdom of Macquarie's policy, but also whether transportation had not, in consequence of it, ceased to be a terror to evildoers. After an inquiry spread over two years, three separate reports were forwarded; a continuation of transportation was recommended, but several improvements in discipline were suggested. The governor's avowed patronage of prisoners was censured, and his liberality in the issue of pardons and indulgences was severely animadverted upon.

Governor Macquarie's financial policy had been rather singular. The balance of trade had caused a scarcity of coin. Private individuals were auth

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