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[1889-1906 A.D.]

themselves, he was rudely made to feel that the government of India, autocratic though it may at times be with the natives, must be more circumspect in dealing with the British community.

The struggle with his fellow countrymen in which Lord Ripon suffered himself to be involved dealt a death-blow to his usefulness as viceroy. Instead of holding the balance between all parties, the viceroy became seemingly a partisan of one against another. When Lord Ripon's name grew to be a symbol between contending factions, nothing remained for him but to withdraw from an office in which he could no longer render useful service. But the Indian historian will hereafter record that to Lord Ripon belongs the distinction of having been the first viceroy openly to recognise and give practical encouragement to the growth of a self-respecting spirit of endeavour and of the desire for some measure of self-government among the more advanced classes of the natives. He sought, as events have shown not unsuccessfully, to assist them in raising themselves from an attitude of passive administrative subjection to a position more worthy both of themselves and of the government under whose liberal rule they live. His generous and kindly recognition of their claims and capacity was warmly responded to by all classes of natives; and if he was condemned to leave Calcutta in whatever disgrace may be thought to attach to the censure of that city, he received from the natives of India throughout his journey to Bombay a spontaneous and enthusiastic ovation, of which the like has never been accorded to his predecessors or

successors.

It is greatly to the honour of Lord Dufferin that, though by no means indifferent to popularity among his countrymen, he never for a moment hesitated to continue and to carry further the main lines of the enlightened policy which had been initiated by Lord Ripon. But in Lord Dufferin's sagacious hands the rocks and shoals on which his predecessor foundered were avoided. In raising the status of the native civil service, and in enlarging the basis and extending the attributes of the several legislative councils, Lord Dufferin laid the native population under a lasting debt of gratitude. In the historic interview with the amir of Afghanistan in 1885 at Rawal Pindi, as throughout his treatment of the Panjdeh incident, his characteristic firmness and suavity were equally displayed. His term of office was darkened by financial difficulties, largely owing to the fall in exchange. The conquest of Upper Burma, though it increased his popularity and added to the lustre of his viceroyalty, reopened the floodgates of military expenditure and added to financial troubles.

With the advent of Lord Lansdowne the liberal policy of his immediate predecessors suffered eclipse. As time passed, it became evident that his thoughts were more occupied with affairs beyond the north-west frontier of India than with the interests of good government within its limits. The growing influence exercised over the viceroy by his chief military and political advisers became more and more matter of uneasy_comment. Under their influence, and probably with approval in Whitehall, Lord Lansdowne renewed in substance Lord Lytton's policy, and the wars which have drained India of money and men since 1896 were due to the course of action adopted under his auspices in the years preceding. There never was a time since 1838 when Simla was so actively the centre of ambitions and of designs beyond the Indus. The most favoured type of Indian official was no longer the provincial governor or the sagacious resident, but that warden of the marches of Baluchistan, Sir Robert Sandeman, whose unique aim it was to extend the zone of British influence beyond the frontier, and whose method was to participate in

[1889-1908 A.D.]

tribal dissensions, and to profit by them. "Sandemania," which has proved so contagious, then first became epidemic in high quarters.

It should be added, however, to the credit of his administration, that Lord Lansdowne grappled successfully with one hideous evil in Hindu social life. He left behind him an act to raise the age of consent among Indian wives from ten to twelve, which, while it provoked much popular clamour, was approved by men of enlightenment of all creeds and races.

During so much of his term of office as was not occupied with combating famine and plague, Lord Elgin was engaged in conflict beyond the frontier with enemies who were none of his own seeking, or in acrid controversy with political friends in England on questions arising out of the political difficulties which had been bequeathed to him by his predecessor. Though the credit of introducing a gold standard into India does not personally rest with Lord Elgin, it was during his term of office that the measure was matured and effect given to it. Lord Curzon became viceroy in 1899. Under him the years 1900-1902 were marked by a great famine which was especially pronounced in the Bombay presidency, Baroda, Hyderabad, and the Central Indian States. Still more terrible were the ravages of the plague, which, beginning in 1896, gradually increased in virulence until in the year 1903 about 842,000, and in 1904 about 1,029,000 persons died of it. The fact that in December and January of 1902-03 about $1,000,000 was expended on the great coronation Durbar at Delhi, when this money might have been devoted to saving human lives, aroused much criticism.

In the year 1903 a British mission under Colonel Younghusband was despatched by the Indian government to Tibet to discuss trade relations and to secure the observance of certain conventions made in 1890 and 1893. In the following March, after long delays and protracted negotiations, the military escort which accompanied the mission became involved in an armed conflict with the Tibetans. After some further delays and negotiations, the expedition then fought its way to the mysterious forbidden city of Lhasa, which was taken on the 3d of August. There a formal treaty was signed by which arrangements were made for commercial intercourse between India and Tibet, and Tibet agreed to pay an indemnity of £500,000, but this sum was later reduced to £166,000.

Lord Curzon's administration was in general a satisfactory one, but in 1905 he became involved in a controversy with Lord Kitchener, the commander-in-chief of the forces in India, over a proposal to increase the powers of the latter, and as Kitchener was sustained by the home government, the viceroy resigned on August 12th. He was succeeded by the earl of Minto.

On September 1, 1904, the presidency of Bengal was divided into two provinces known as East Bengal and Assan. This partition aroused opposition among the Bengalis, and in 1907 the agitation spread into the Punjab; there were signs of latent sedition throughout eastern Bengal and the Punjab; there was some rioting, and the government was obliged to take rather harsh measures. The reasons underlying the movement appear to be the inevitable antagonism of the native Indian to alien rule. Babu Chundra Pal, a Bengali of considerable education, much ability, and of great eloquence, was the chief purveyor of seditious ideas; and it was noted that the Europeanised barristers and others, having a western education, were among the most active in the movement.a

BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS

[The letter a is reserved for Editorial Matter.]

CHAPTER I. THE MOHAMMEDAN AND THE MUGHAL EMPIRES (664-1857 A.D.)

P. H. STANHOPE, History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles.-G. LE BON, Les civilisations de l'Inde. —a W. W. HUNTER, article on "India" in the Encyclopædia Britannica. M. ELPHINSTONE, History of India. -J. MILL and H. H. WILSON, The History of British India.-G. WEBER, Allgemeine Weltgeschichte.-H. M. LAWRENCE, Essays, Military and Political. i ABUL FAZL, Akbar Namah. -¿SAMUEL PURCHAS, his Pilgrimes. MOHAMMED KASIM FERISHTA, History of the Mohammedan Power in India (translated by Briggs).-W. CROOKE, The Northwestern Provinces of India. G. KEENE, The Fall of the Mughal Empire. -n J. B. TAVERNIER, Six Voyages.

—m H.

CHAPTER II. THE EUROPEAN EMPIRE IN INDIA: THE RISE OF CLIVE (1498-1774 A.D.)

P. H. STANHOPE, History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles.-J. MILL and H. H. WILSON, The_History of British India. d WILLIAM OF MALMESBURY, De Gestis Regum Anglorum. J. MALCOLM, Life of Lord Clive. - R. ORME, History of the Military Transactions of the British Nation in Indostan from 1745.-9 G. B. MALLESON, History of the French in India. - T. B. MACAULAY, Essay on Lord Clive. "GHOLAM HOSSEIN, Seir Mutakhareen. -J JOHN EVELYN, Diary. R. ORME, Historical Fragments of the Mogul Empire.-W. W. HUNTER, article on "India" in the Encyclopædia Britannica.

CHAPTER III. WARREN HASTINGS, CORNWALLIS AND THE WELLESLEYS (1772-1806 A.D.)

J. S. COTTON, article on "Warren Hastings" in the Encyclopædia Britannica.-P. H. STANHOPE, History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles. — a HAJI MUSTAPHA, translator of Gholam Hossein's Seir Mutakhareen. · Le BISHOP HEBER, Journals. SPARLIAMENTARY HISTORY.-C. MACFARLANE and T. THOMSON, The Comprehensive History of England. - A. ALISON, History of Europe.-C. KNIGHT, The Popular History of England. DUKE OF WELLINGTON, Second Supplementary Despatches. - kLORD BROUGHAM, Sketches of Statesmen.· - HARRIET MARTINEAU, Introduction to the History of the Peace.· " QUARTERLY REVIEW, Vol. XCII, p. 513.-H. H. WILSON, Notes to Mill's History of British India. -PJ. MILL, History of British India. - - W. W. HUNTER, article on India" in the Encyclopædia Britannica. T. B. MACAULAY, Essay on Warren Hastings.-A. C. LYALL, The Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India.

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CHAPTER IV. CONQUESTS AND REFORMS FROM 1807 TO 1835

66

¿C. KNIGHT, The Popular History of England. — J. MALCOLM, Memoir of Central India. &F. CORBYN, Treatis on Epidemic Cholera (Calcutta, 1832).-H. H. WILSON, The History of British India from 1805-1835. — A. M. TULLOCH, in Macfarlane's Our Indian Empire.· 'W. W. HUNTER, article on “India” in the Encyclopædia Britannica.

CHAPTER V. FROM THE FIRST AFGHAN WAR TO THE MUTINY

bR. SEARS, Pictorial History of China and India. -J. W. KAYE, History of the War in Afghanistan. d LADY SALE, Journal. - C. KNIGHT, The Popular History of England. W. F. P. NAPIER, A History of the Conquest of Scinde.-H. H. WILSON, The History of British India from 1805 to 1835. — F. J. GOLDSMID, article on "Sind" in the Encyclopædia

W. H.-VOL. XXII. Q

225

Britannica.-A. ALISON, History of Europe from 1815-1852.-R. MACLAGAN, article on "Punjab" in the Encyclopædia Britannica. A. C. LYALL, The Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India.

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CHAPTER VI. THE INDIAN MUTINY

W. W. HUNTER, article on "India" in the Encyclopædia Britannica.-C. MACFARLANE and T. THOMSON, The Comprehensive History of England. d LIEUTENANT MACDOWELL Letter printed in G. H. Hodson's Twelve Years of a Soldier's Life in India. - LORD ROBERTS, Forty-one Years in India.-G. B. MALLESON, The Indian Mutiny of 1857.-9 JUSTIN MCCARTHY, A History of Our Own Times. - A. C. LYALL, The Rise and Expansion of the British Dominion in India. - MOWBRAY THOMSON, The Story of Cawnpore.-M. R. GUBBINS, Mutinies in Oudh.-T. R. E. HOLMES, History of the Indian Mutiny.-SPENCER WALPOLE, History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815.

CHAPTER VII. INDIA SINCE THE MUTINY

bW. W. HUNTER, article on "India" in the Encyclopædia Britannica.-J. FRANCK BRIGHT, A History of England. -d A. C. LYALL, article on "History of Afghanistan" in the New Volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica.-J. STRACHEY and R. STRACHEY, Finances and Public Works of India.-A. COLVIN, article on the "Recent History of India" in the New Volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica.-E. PEACH, article on the "Burmese War" in the New Volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica. - L. J. TROTTER, A History of India.

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1336 Independent Afghan dynasty (capital Ghor) begins to reign in Bengal.

1347-1357 Earliest Mohammedan dynasty established in the Deccan by Ala-ud-din (capital Gulbargah).

1391 Independent Mohammedan dynasty founded at Ahmadabad in Guzerat.

1484 Imad Shahi dynasty founded at Berar (capital Ellichpur).

1489 Adil Shahi dynasty founded at Bijapur.

1490 Nizam Shahi dynasty founded at Ahmadnagar.

1492 Barid Shahi dynasty founded at Bidar.

1498 Vasco da Gama discovers the Cape route to India and reaches Calicut.

1500 Portuguese factories established at Kananur and Cochin.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1505 First Portuguese viceroy in India: the Portuguese discover Ceylon.

1510 The Portuguese viceroy conquers Goa and

1511 Malacca.

1512 Kutab Shahi dynasty founded at Golconda.

1515 Portuguese established at Diu.

1518 Portuguese settle in Ceylon.

1521 The discontented subjects of the emperor of Delhi summon Baber (Zehir-ud-din), the Mughal king of Kabul, to India.

1526 Baber defeats the Delhi emperor in the great battle of Panipat and takes Agra; the Rana Sanga of Mewar (Udaipur) collects a vast host against him.

1527 Baber wins the battle of Kanweh and makes himself master of India.

1530 Death of Baber. His son Humayun succeeds him.

1531 Daman taken and destroyed by Portuguese.

1539 Humayun defeated by Shir Shah who becomes lord of Hindustan; Humayun takes refuge in Persia.

1543 St. Francis Xavier founds Christian settlements in Travancore.

1545 Portuguese viceroy defeats the king of Guzerat at Diu.

1556 Humayun recovers part of his empire, including Delhi. Humayun dies and is succeeded by Akbar the Great under regency of Bairam Khan. He begins a series of wars to recover the empire of Baber.

1558 Portuguese settled at Daman.

1560 Akbar assumes the government in person and exercises a strong and humane govern

ment.

1565 Battle of Talikota; the five Mohammedan kings of the Deccan defeat the Hindu rajah of Vijayanagar and overthrow his empire (founded 1118) which splits up into small sovereignties.

1567 Princes of western India league against the Portuguese but are defeated by them.

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