to the printing trade also are the fine lithographing, engraving and map making in which New York holds first place in America.

Trade and Commerce.-Nature and man have made New York the main portal of the foreign commerce of the United States, its commercial supremacy being due in large part to its harbor facilities as well as to its geographical location. The city has a water front of 578 miles, divided among the boroughs as follows: Manhattan, 48.2 miles; Brooklyn, 201.5 miles; Queens, 196.8 miles; Bronx, 79.8 miles; Richmond, 57.1 miles. The exigencies of the European War so greatly increased the commerce of the port as to strain severely the accommodations of the water front; of which only 103 miles are now occupied by docks. The wharfage on Manhattan has been within recent years improved by huge piers, notably the range of Chelsea docks, 800 to 850 feet long, extending from 12th to 22d streets, and the 1,000-foot piers between 44th and 59th streets. Large sections of the Hudson River front on the New Jersey side are owned by the great railroad corporations but some of the largest steamships find spacious berths along that shore. Across the East River on the Brooklyn shore are the docks of sugar refineries, factories, warehouses, government storage houses, the famous Brooklyn navy yard, with its great dry docks, and the South Brooklyn terminal basins for canal boats; while the shores of Staten Island also are lined with docks' and fringed with piers. In the calendar year 1918 the foreign commerce of the port of New York amounted to $3,856,312,551 the value of the imports being $1,294,414,573, that of the exports, $2,561,897,978. As the imports of the whole United States were valued at $3,031,307,721, and the exports at $6,149,392,647, it is seen that New York handled nearly 43 per cent of the imports and more than 41 per cent of the exports of the nation. During the fiscal year ended 30 June 1918 the number of merchant ships entering the harbor of New York was 4,182. Of these, 3,647 were steamers aggregating 10,446,601 tons, and 535 were sailing vessels, totaling 496,488 tons. There are 99 ocean steamship lines having their headquarters in New York, and 38 lines of river and coastwise steamers, operating between New York and points on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, Long Island Sound and the Hudson River, and ports in Central and South America, Europe, Africa, Asia and Australia. The port of New York is also the freight terminal of the main line of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the Pennsylvania, the New York Central, the Erie, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, the West Shore, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, the New York, Lake Erie and Western, the Long Island and the New York, Ontario and Western railroads. See NEW YORK, HARBOR OF.

Government. The charter of New York, as revised, by the legislature in 1901, follows, in the main, the lines of the charter of the old city, with important provisions adopted from the charter of the former city of Brooklyn and from those of other American and European cities. The greater part of it is the law as it has existed for half a century, and the chief changes have to do with the adoption of the borough system and the policy of giving

control to localities over their own affairs. The executive power is vested in the mayor, the presidents of the boroughs and the heads of the departments. The mayor, who holds office for four years and is eligible for re-election, appoints the heads of departments and commissioners, except those over which the presidents of the boroughs have jurisdiction, and except also the comptroller or head of the department of finance, who is elected by the people. He can, with few exceptions, remove any official appointed by him, and can himself be removed by the governor, after a hearing upon charges. The mayor has the power of veto over all ordinances and resolutions of the board of aldermen, but an ordinance or resolution can be passed over his veto by a vote of two-thirds of the members of that body, except that when it involves the expenditure of money, the creation of a debt or the laying of an assessment, a three-fourths vote is required. The president of each borough holds office for two years. He presides over each local board in his borough, with the right to vote on and of veto cver its actions, and is ex-officio member of the board of estimate and apportionment. He is also a member of the board of aldermen and has the same right to vote as any member elected to that body. The borough president appoints and may at pleasure remove a commissioner of public works for his borough with control of all matters relating to the improvement and repair of streets and sewers. He also has control of the public buildings in his borough except schools, hospitals, penitentiaries and fire and police stations, and exercises the supervision vested in the city over the construction of buildings in his borough, except such powers as are directly vested in the tenement-house commission. The borough

presidents also are removable by the governor. The board of estimate and apportionment, besides the functions implied by its name, acts as a general board of directors of the city, determining its policy as to financial affairs, public improvements, franchises and special permits, in which matters it has practically the sole authority. The departments of administration comprise: 1, the board of estimate and apportionment; 2, finance; 3, law; 4, police; 5, fire; 6, water supply, gas and electricity; 7, street cleaning; 8, plant and structures; 9, parks; 10, docks and ferries; 11, public charities; 12, correction; 13, health, including an important division of child hygiene; 14, tenement house; 15, education; 16, taxes and assessments; 17, licenses.

Courts. The city is included in two of the State judicial districts: the first district is coextensive with the counties of New York and Bronx; the second district includes (among other territory) the counties of Kings, Queens and Richmond. These are thus a part of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the State. In the first district there are 32 resident justices; in the second district there are 18. There is also a County Court for each county in the city; a city court, with 10 judges; a Court of General Sessions, with seven judges; a Court of Special Sessions, with 12 justices; a children's court, with five justices; 24 municipal courts; and 41 city magistrates. The appellate division of the State Supreme Court has its courthouse in the city; and there are head

In addition to this tangible wealth the city's tax commissioner listed in 1918 taxable franchises in the several boroughs as follows: In Manhattan, $262,825,592; in Brooklyn, $92,659,654; in the Bronx, $32,097,927; in Queens, $27,479,195; in Richmond, $4,411,730-a total of $439,474,098. The gross funded debt on 1 Jan. 1919 was $1,506,595,699. The exempt funded debt was $330,960,860 and the net sinking fund, amortization and redemption funds amounted to $456,301,050, leaving the total constitutional funded debt, within the debt limit, $719,293,759; as against the constitutional borrowing limit (10 per cent of the assessed valuation) of $833,964,285. The receipts of the city treasury for the year 1918 were $754,897,785 and the expenditures $738,012,373.

The chief sources of income are property taxes, liquor licenses, special assessments, franchises, water rates, docks, ferries and subways. Valuable franchises granted to private companies do not in all cases return a proportionate income to the civic treasury. There are 44 national and 48 State banks, 54 savings banks and 35 trust companies in the city, some of them having several branch establishments. The New York Clearing House Association is composed of 44 banks and 15 trust companies, associated for the purpose of exchanging the checks and drafts they hold against each other. The clearing house is at 77 Cedar street, where it has been in operation since 1853. Banks not members of the association may clear through members. The clearing house transactions for the fiscal year ended 30 Sept. 1918 amounted to: Exchanges, $174,524,179,929; balances adjusted, $17,255,062,671; total transactions, $191,779,241,700. The average daily transactions amounted to: Exchanges, $575,987,390; balances, $56,947,402; total $632,934,791. For many years the leading savings bank was the Bowery Savings Bank, which in 1918 reports total deposits of $104,422,370 in 142,200 accounts, and a surplus of $16,771,270. But in recent years this bank has relinquished first place to the Emigrant Industrial Savings Bank, with total deposits of $168,880,510 in 185,225 accounts, and a surplus of $14,683,520. There are 11 life and 32 fire and marine insurance companies in the city, besides a number of companies engaged in casualty, credit, fidelity and surety and real estate title insurance. The best known of the city's financial institutions is the Stock Exchange, an association for the exchange of securities for currency or its representatives. The securities bought and sold at the New York Stock Exchange are certifi

cates of stocks and bonds issued under national, State or municipal authority, or by corporations doing business as common carriers, or in banking, mining, manufacturing or other industrial pursuits. In 1918 the par value of shares sold by the exchange was nearly 14 billions, and that of bonds sold $2,093,257,500. The chief business of its members is buying and selling these stocks and bonds for outside clients, the charge being one-eighth of one per cent on the par value of every transaction. The Stock Exchange is limited to a membership of 1,200. Before 1868 seats on the New York Stock Exchange were not transferred by purchase and sale, but an initiation fee of $3,000 was required from members. In 1868 the transfer system was instituted and the seats began to have a market valuation. All new members are now admitted through transfer, "seats" being worth from $65,000 to $75,000.

Education and Intellectual Associations.The city has 515 elementary schools; 154 in Manhattan, 179 in Brooklyn, 56 in The Bronx, 95 in Queens and 34 in Richmond. It also has 24 high schools, 4 training schools for teachers, 2 truant schools and 4 vocational schools. The average attendance of pupils in the elementary schools in 1918 was 755,033; in the high schools, 70,366; in the vocational schools, 2,241; in the training schools, 1,029. The annual school appropriation for 1919 was $46,104,330, of which $37,589,098 was for salaries of teachers numbering 22,100. Besides evening schools, free lecture courses, recreation centres, summer vacation schools and playgrounds and special classes for foreign children are maintained; also rapid progress classes for those in advance of their grade; working paper classes for those who must have extra help to be entitled to working papers; while there are over 140 special classes for the education of mentally defective children. Prominent among the city's higher institutions of learning are the College of the City of New York, popularly known as City College, founded in 1848 as the Free Academy, and for many years on 23d street, now housed in splendid Gothic buildings erected at a cost of about $4,000,000 on Harlem Heights between 136th and 138th streets and Amsterdam avenue. Free tuition is given by about 250 instructors to an average attendance of 7,000 students at an annual cost of about $250,000. On Cathedral Heights at 116th street is columbia University founded by royal charter from George II in 1754 under the name of King's College. This institution is also noted for its fine modern buildings and affiliated connections. The instructors number 1,162 and the average 1918 attendance of students in all departments was 17,604, including the summer school of 5,600, and membership in the extension courses of 4,500. On University Heights on the east bank of the Harlem River is New York University, founded in 1830, and for many years located on Washington Square and University Place, where the Law school is still located. Prominent among the university buildings is the classic Hall of Fame, the gift of Helen Gould, dedicated to the perpetuation of the names of famous Americans. In 1918 the average attendance was 7,778 students, with 493 instructors. At 69th street and Park avenue is Hunter College (named after its first principal, Dr. Thomas Hunter), formerly the

Normal College, founded in 1870 as a free city institution to train girls as teachers; the average attendance of students in 1918 was 1,386, and the number of instructors, 120. Noteworthy also are Manhattan College, the College of Saint Francis Xavier, Saint John's College, the Union Theological Seminary, the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and the College of Physicians and Surgeons, while a majority of the hospitals have training schools for nurses. Chief among many institutions of private endowment, is the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, endowed by John D. Rockefeller with $4,000,000 for the advancement of the science of medicine by laboratory investigation, experiment, clinical observation and study. Important factors also in the city's educational development are 163 public and subscription libraries, including the New York Public Library (q.v.) with its 46 branches and the museum collections of many societies. Numerous also are the art and literary associations; chief among them the National Arts Club with 1,450 members; the Art Students League with 1,557 members; the School Art League of New York City with 626 members and 2,790 juniors; the Salmagundi Club of 800 members; the Fine Arts Federation of New York, an association of 15 art societies; the National Academy of Design; the University Club, with 3,800 members; the National Institute of Arts and Letters; the New York Historical Society; the American Geographical Society; the Hispanic Society of America and the Authors' League of America; while there are 30 dramatic and 61 musical clubs, 180 social clubs and as many theaters. Mention also should be made of the many social settlements, some attached to churches, others of a secular nature, found in different thickly settled sections of the city, studying and ministering to the needs of their neighborhoods in recreation, hygiene, education, industry and politics.

Churches.- New York is the see of the Roman Catholic and Russian Greek Catholic archbishops, and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. In 1918 Greater New York had over 1,700 churches and religious societies. These were distributed as follows: Manhattan and The Bronx, 815; Brooklyn (called the "City of Churches"), 585; Queens, 212 and Richmond 92. As to sect, the Roman Catholic denomination has the largest number of churches - 351; the Protestant Episcopal, 217; the Methodist Episcopal, 200; the Baptist, 139; the Presbyterian, 130, and the Jewish, 119.

The Disciples of Christ, Moravians, Universalists, Unitarians, Friends and Christian Scientists each have a number of fine churches. There are also many independent organizations representing every form of religious belief. The finest church building is the Roman Catholic cathedral in Fifth avenue. The New Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, located on Morningside Heights, now partially completed and opened for worship, will be when finished the costliest church edifice in America. Of the others the most notable is Trinity Church, on Broadway at the head of Wall Street, which has the longest continuous history of any parish in the city. It was in 1697 that William and Mary granted a parcel of land "in or near to a street without the north gate of the city, commonly called Broad

way," for use "as the parish church and churchyard of the parish of Trinity Church within our said city of New York." The church built on this grant was first occupied in 1698. Destroyed in the fire of 1776, the church was rebuilt 12 years later on the original site; but the second building was found to be unsafe in 1839, and in 1846 was replaced by the present structure. The church maintains eight chapels and aids 10 other mission churches in various parts of the city, and conducts industrial and training schools and classes and several guilds.

Charities. All of the city's charitable institutions except those under the board of health and the association of the Bellevue and Allied hospitals, are administered by the department of charities superintended by a commissioner. Institutional relief is given but no money nor home supplies. The city gives in addition about $4,000,000 to religious and privately managed hospitals and asylums that receive the city's poor. Largest among the charitable institutions of the city is the Charity Organization Society, which is supported by voluntary contributions and legacies and serves as a centre of inter-communication between various churches and charitable agencies, to avoid overlapping. There are 32 hospitals, refuges and asylums which receive State or municipal aid, and 170 hospitals and dispensaries supported by voluntary contributions and private endowment. Thirty-eight institutions and associations are conducted for the relief of the aged, and 140 for the relief of children. In the latter class mention should be made of the Children's Aid Society, organized in 1853, which has provided 75,000 boys and girls with homes and places of employment, and in its industrial schools given aid and instruction to over 115,000 children; the New York Foundling Hospital, which is controlled by the Sisters of Charity, sheltered during 1918, 4,960 inmates and 582 homeless mothers; and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, by which an average of 9,000 complaints are yearly received and investigated. There are 26 organized agencies for the reformation of children, fallen women and intemperate men; these include the Catholic Protectory, where 4,500 children are taught trades and industrial employment, and the House of Refuge where 1,300 boys and girls received upon commitment of the city courts, are given a common school education and industrial instruction. Noteworthy among agencies for rendering special or temporary relief to the poor are the Grace Institute, endowed by William R. Grace in 1897 to furnish women and girls instruction in trades and occupations and which now has 900 pupils; the Legal Aid Society, which gives free legal aid and assistance to those unable to procure the same; the Prison Association of New York, which aids reformed convicts after discharge; the Provident Loan Society which loans on pledges of personal property at 1 per cent a month; the Baron de Hirsch Fund for the benefit of Hebrew immigrants; 15 church and college settlement houses, and the Sailors' Snug Harbor on Staten Island, where a home is provided for 900 aged and decrepit sailors. Mention must also be made of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, founded in 1864 by Henry Bergh, and the parent of similar organizations in many other States and cities.