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made by comparing phenomena-an abstraction under which phenomena are classed in order to the extension of knowledge, just as under a concept are grouped the particulars presented in intuition. As proof of this identity it is found that the same differences exist regarding the objective or subjective nature of the "natural law" as regarding that of the concept. Some affirm that the law is brought ready-made by the mind and superinduced on the facts; others, that it is never in any sense more than a mere mental conception, got by observing the facts; while there are yet others who maintain it to be such a subjective conception, but one corresponding at the same time to an external relation which is real though unknowable. ABSURDUM, REDUCTIO AD, a mode of demonstrating the truth of a proposition, by showing that its contradictory leads to an absurdity. It is much employed by Euclid.

sented to it in intuition, to recognise and attend exclusively | least in its subjective aspect, is invariably an abstraction to their points of agreement, and so to classify them in accordance with their perceived resemblances. Further, this process is admitted without much dispute to belong to the discursive or elaborative action of the intellect; although, perhaps should the view of some modern psychologists be correct, that all intelligence proceeds by the establishment of relations of likeness and unlikeness -abstraction will be better conceived as thus related to intelligence in general and typical of all its processes, than as the action merely of a special and somewhat indefinite faculty. No such harmony, however, exists regarding the nature of the product of abstraction; for that is the subjectmatter of Nominalism and Realism, which has produced more controversy, and stimulated to more subtlety of thought, than any other subject ever debated in philosophy. The concept or abstract idea has been represented in a multitude of ways: sometimes as an idea possessing an objective existence independent of particulars, even more real and permanent than theirs; sometimes as an idea composed of all the circumstances in which the particulars agree, and of no others; again, as the idea of an individual, retaining its individualising qualities, but with the accompanying knowledge that these are not the properties of the class; and yet again, as the idea of a miscellaneous assemblage of individuals belonging to a class. It is still impossible to say that the many-sided controversy is at an end. The only conclusion generally admitted seems to be, that there exists between the concept and the particular objects of intuition some very intimate relation of thought, so that it is necessary, for all purposes of reasoning, that the general and particular go hand in hand, that the idea of the class-if such exists -be capable of being applied, in every completed act of thought, to the objects comprised within the class.

To the student of ontology, also, abstraction is of special interest, since, according to many distinguished thinkers, the recognition of abstraction as a powerful and universal mental process is to explain all ontology away, and give the ontologist his eternal quietus. The thoroughgoing nominalist professes to discover in the mind an inveterate tendency to abstraction, and a proneness to ascribe separate existence to abstractions, amply sufficient to account for all those forms of independent reality which metaphysics defend, and to exhibit them all in their true colours as fictitious assumptions. In reply, the ontologist, strengthened by the instinct of self-preservation, commonly contends that the analogy between general notions and metaphysical principles does not hold good, and that the latter are always more than simple abstractions or mere Only after abstraction is understood can the

names.

question be settled.

In like manner to logic, whether regarded as the science of the formal laws of thought, or, more widely, as the science of scientific methods, a true understanding of abstraction is of the greatest importance. It is important in pure logic, because, as we have seen, every act of judgment and reasoning postulates a concept or concepts, and so presupposes abstraction. Abstraction, determining the possibility alike of reason and speech, creates those notions that bear common names; it is indispensable to the formation of classes, great or small; and just according as it ascends, increasing the extension and diminishing the intension of classes, the horizon visible to reason and to logic gradually recedes and widens. And to logic as the

science of the sciences a true doctrine of abstraction is not less necessary; because the process of extending knowledge is, in all its developments, essentially the same as the first rudimentary effort to form a concept and think of particulars as members of a class; a "natural law," at

ABU, a celebrated mountain of Western India, between 5000 and 6000 feet in height, situated in 24° 40′ N. lat., and 72° 48′ E. long., within the Rájputáná State of Sirohí. It is celebrated as the site of the most ancient Jain temples in India, and attracts pilgrims from all parts of the country. The Jains are the modern Indian representatives of the Buddhists, and profess the ancient theistic doctrines of that sect, modified by saint worship and incarnations. The elevations and platforms of the mountain are covered with elaborately sculptured shrines, temples, and tombs. On the top of the hill is a small round platform containing a cavern, with a block of granite, bearing the impression of the feet of Dátá-Bhrigu, an incarnation of Vishnu. This is the chief great place of pilgrimage for the Jains, Shrawaks, and Banians. The two principal temples are situated at Deulwárá, about the middle of the mountain, and five miles south-west of Guru Sikrá, the highest summit. They are built of white marble, and are pre-eminent alike for their beauty and as typical specimens of Jain architecture in India. The following description is condensed from Mr Fergusson's History of Architecture, vol. ii. pp. 623 to 625-The more modern of the two was built by two brothers, rich merchants, between the years 1197 and 1247, and for delicacy of carving and minute beauty of detail stands almost unrivalled, even in this land of patient and lavish labour. The other was built by another merchant prince, Bimalá Sháh, apparently about 1032 A.d., and although simpler and bolder in style, is as elaborate as good taste would allow in a purely architectural object. It is one of the oldest as well as one of the most complete examples of Jain architecture known. The principal object within the temple is a cell lighted only from the door, containing a cross-legged seated figure of the god Paresnáth. The portico is composed of forty-eight pillars, the whole enclosed in an oblong court-yard about 140 feet by 90 feet, surrounded by a double colonnade of smaller pillars, forming porticos to a range of fifty-five cells, which enclose it on all sides, exactly as they do in a Buddhist monastery (vihára). In this temple, however, each cell, instead of being the residence of a monk, is occupied by an image of Paresnáth, and over the door, or on the jambs of each, are sculptured scenes from the life of the deity. The whole interior is magnificently ornamented. The Emperor Akbar, by a farmán dated in the month of Rabi-ul-ául, in the 37th year of his reign, corresponding with 1593, made a grant of the hill and temples of Abu, as well as of the other hills and places of Jain pilgrimage in the empire, to Harbijai Sur, a celebrated preceptor of the Setámbari sect of the Jain religion. He also prohibited the slaughter of animals at these places. The farmán of this enlightened. monarch declared that "it is the rule of the worshippers of God to preserve all religions."

ABU-BEKR (father of the virgin), was originally called quently transferred to the see of Aleppo, and was elected Abd-el-Caaba (servant of the temple), and received the name in 1266 Maphrian or Primate of the eastern section of by which he is known historically in consequence of the the Jacobite Christians. This dignity he held till his marriage of his virgin daughter Ayesha to Mohammed. He death, which occurred at Maragha, in Azerbijan, in 1286. was born at Mecca in the year 573 A.D., a Koreishite of Abulfaragius wrote a large number of works on various the tribe of Benn-Taim. Possessed of immense wealth, subjects, but his fame as an author rests chiefly on his which he had himself acquired in commerce, and held in | History of the World, from the creation to his own high esteem as a judge, an interpreter of dreams, and a day. It was written first in Syriac, and then, after a depositary of the traditions of his race, his early accession considerable interval, an abridged version in Arabic to Islamism was a fact of great importance. On his con- was published by the author at the request of friends. version he assumed the name of Abd-Alla (servant of God). The latter is divided into ten sections, each of which conHis own belief in Mohammed and his doctrines was so tained the account of a separate dynasty. The historic thorough as to procure for him the title El Siddik (the value of the work lies entirely in the portions that treat of faithful), and his success in gaining converts was corre- eastern nations, especially in those relating to the Saracens, spondingly great. In his personal relationship to the the Tartar Mongols, and the conquests of Genghis Khan. prophet he showed the deepest veneration and most un- The other sections are full of mistakes, arising partly no swerving devotion. When Mohammed fled from Mecca, doubt from the author's comparative ignorance of classical Abu-Bekr was his sole companion, and shared both his languages. A Latin translation of the Arabic abridgement hardships and his triumphs, remaining constantly with was published by Dr Pococke at Oxford in 1663. A porhim until the day of his death. During his last illness tion of the original text, with Latin translation, edited, by the prophet indicated Abu-Bekr as his successor, by desir- no means carefully or accurately, by Bruns and F. W. ing him to offer up prayer for the people. The choice Kirsch, appeared at Leipsic in 1788. was ratified by the chiefs of the army, and ultimately confirmed, though Ali, Mohammed's son-in-law, disputed it, asserting his own title to the dignity. After a time Ali submitted, but the difference of opinion as to his claims. gave rise to a controversy which still divides the followers of the prophet into the rival factions of Sunnites and Shiites. Abu-Bekr had scarcely assumed his new position under the title Khalifet-Resul-Allah (successor of the prophet of God), when he was called to suppress the revolt of the tribes Hedjaz and Nedjd, of which the former rejected Islamism, and the latter refused to pay tribute. He encountered formidable opposition from different quarters, but in every case he was successful, the severest struggle being that with the impostor Mosailima, who was finally defeated by Khaled at the battle of Akraba. Abu-Bekr's zeal for the spread of the new faith was as conspicuous as that of its founder had been. When the internal disorders had been repressed and Arabia completely subdued, he directed his generals to foreign conquest. The Irak of Persia was overcome by Khaled in a single campaign, and there was also a successful expedition into Syria. After the hard-won victory over Mosailima, Omar, fearing that the sayings of the prophet would be entirely forgotten when those who had listened to them had all been removed by death, induced Abu-Bekr to see to their preservation in a written form. The record, when completed, was deposited with Hafsu, daughter of Omar, and one of the wives of Mohammed. It was held in great reverence by all Moslems, though it did not possess canonical authority, and furnished most of the materials out of which the Koran, as it now exists, was prepared. When the authoritative version was completed, all copies of Hafsu's record were destroyed, in order to prevent possible disputes and divisions. Abu-Bekr died on the 23d of August 634, having reigned as Khalif fully two years. Shortly before his death, which one tradition ascribes to poison, another to natural causes, he indicated Omar as his successor, after the manner Mohammed had observed in his own case.

ABULFARAGIUS, GREGOR ABULFARAJ (called also BARHEBRÆUS, from his Jewish parentage), was born at Malatia, in Armenia, in 1226. His father Aaron was a physician, and Abulfaragius, after studying under him, also practised medicine witn great success. His command of the Arabic, Syriac, and Greek languages, and his knowledge of philosophy and theology, gained for him a very high reputation. In 1244 he removed to Antioch, and shortly after to Tripoli, where he was consecrated Bishop of Guba, when only twenty years of age. He was subse

ABULFAZL, vizier and historiographer of the great Mongol emperor, Akbar, was born about the middle of the 16th century, the precise date being uncertain. His career as a minister of state, brilliant though it was, would probably have been by this time forgotten but for the record he himself has left of it in his celebrated history. The Akbar Nameh, or Book of Akbar, as Abulfazl's chief literary work is called, consists of two parts, the first being a complete history of Akbar's reign, and the second, entitled Ayin-i-Akbari, or Institutes of Akbar, being an account of the religious and political constitution and administration of the empire. The style is singularly elegant, and the contents of the second part possess a unique and lasting interest. An excellent translation of that part by Mr Francis Gladwin was published in Calcutta, 1783-6. It was reprinted in London very inaccurately, and copies of the original edition are now exceedingly rare and correspondingly valuable. Abulfazl died by the hand of an assassin, while returning from a mission to the Deccan in 1602. Some writers say that the murderer was instigated by the heir-apparent, who had become jealous of the minister's influence.

ABULFEDA, ISMAEL BEN-ALI, EMAD-EDDIN, the celebrated Arabian historian and geographer, born at Damascus in the year 672 of the Hegira (1273 A.D.), was directly descended from Ayub, the father of the emperor Saladin. In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the Koran and the sciences, but from his twelfth year he was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285 he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the Knights of St John, and he took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre, and Roum. In 1298 the princedom of Hamah and other honours, originally conferred by Saladin upon Omar, passed by inheritance to Abulfeda; but the succession was violently disputed by his two brothers, and the Court availed itself of the opportunity to supersede all the three, and to abolish the principality. The sultan Melik-el-Nassir ultimately (1310) restored the dignity to Abulfeda, with additional honours, as an acknowledgment of his military services against the Tartars and Bibars, the sultan's rival. He received an independent sovereignty, with the right of coining money, &c., and had the title Melik Mowayyad (victorious prince) conferred upon him. For twenty years, till his death in October 1331, he reigned in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of government and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron

of men of letters, who repaired in large numbers to his court. Abulfeda's chief historical work is An Abridgement of the History of the Human Race, in the form of annals, extending from the creation of the world to the year 1328. A great part of it is compiled from the works of previous writers, and it is difficult to determine accurately what is the author's and what is not. Up to the time of the birth of Mohammed, the narrative is very succinct; it becomes more full and valuable the nearer the historian approaches his own day. It is the only source of information on many facts connected with the Saracen empire, and altogether is by far the most important Arabian history we now possess. Various translations of parts of it exist, the earliest being a Latin rendering of the section relating to the Arabian conquests in Sicily, by Dobelius, Arabic professor at Palermo, in 1610. This is preserved in Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, vol. i. The history from the time of Mohammed was published with a Latin translation by Reiske, under the title Annales Moslemici (5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-94), and a similar edition of the earlier part was published by Fleischer at Leipsic in 1831, under the title Abulfeda Historia AnteIslamitica. His Geography is chiefly valuable in the historical and descriptive parts relating to the Moslem empire. From his necessarily imperfect acquaintance with astronomy, his notation of latitude and longitude, though fuller than that of any geographer who preceded him, can in no case be depended on, and many of the places whose position he gives with the utmost apparent precision cannot be now identified. A complete edition was published by MM. Reinaud and De Slane at Paris in 1840; and Reinaud published a French translation, with notes and illustrations, in 1848. MSS. of both Abulfeda's great works are preserved in the Bodleian Library and in the National Library of France.

ABULGHAZI-BAHADUR (1605-1663), a khan of Khiva, of the race of Genghis-Khan, who, after abdicating in favour of his son, employed his leisure in writing a history of the Mongols and Tartars. He produced a valuable work, which has been translated into German, French, and Russian.

ABUNA, the title given to the archbishop or metropolitan of Abyssinia.

ABUSHEHR.

See BUSHIRE.

ABU-SIMBEL, or IPSAMBUL, the ancient Aboccis or Abuncis, a place in Nubia, on the left bank of the Nile,

about 50 miles S.W. of Derr, remarkable for its ancient Egyptian temples and colossal figures hewn out of the solid rock. For a description of these see NUBIA. ABU-TEMAN, one of the most highly esteemed of Arabian poets, was born at Djacem in the year 190 of the Hegira (806 A.D.) In the little that is told of his life it is difficult to distinguish between truth and fable. He seems to have lived in Egypt in his youth, and to have been engaged in servile employment, but his rare poetic talent speedily raised him to a distinguished position at the court of the caliphs of Bagdad. Arabian historians assert that a single poem frequently gained for him many thousand pieces of gold, and the rate at which his contemporaries estimated his genius may be understood from the saying, that "no one could ever die whose name had been praised in the verses of Abu-Teman." Besides writing original poetry, he made three collections of select pieces from the poetry of the East, of the most important of which, called Hamasa, Sir William Jones speaks highly. Professor Carlyle quoted this collection largely in his Specimens of Arabic Poetry (1796). An edition of the text, with Latin translation, was published by Freytag at Bonn (1828-51), and a meritorious translation in German verse by Rückert appeared in 1846. Abu-Teman died 845 A.D.

ABYDOS (1.), in Ancient Geography, a city of Mysia in Asia Minor, situated on the Hellespont, which is here scarcely a mile broad. It probably was originally a Thracian town, but was afterwards colonised by Milesians. Nearly opposite, on the European side of the Hellespont, stood Sestos; and it was here that Xerxes crossed the strait on his celebrated bridge of boats when he invaded Greece. Abydos was celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made when besieged by Philip II. of Macedon; and is famed in story for the loves of Hero and Leander. The old castle of the Dardanelles, built by the Turks, lies a little southward of Sestos and Abydos.

ABYDOS (2.), in Ancient Geography, a town of Upper Egypt, a little to the west of the Nile, between Ptolemais and Diospolis Parva, famous for the palace of Memnon and the temple of Osiris. Remains of these two edifices are still in existence. In the temple of Osiris Mr Bankes discovered in 1818 the tablet of Abydos, containing a double series of twenty-six shields of the predecessors of Rameses the Great. This tablet is now deposited in the British Museum.

ABYSSINIA

is extensive East

the limits of which are not well defined, and authorities are by no means agreed respecting them. It may, however, be regarded as lying between 7° 30′ and 15° 40' N. lat., and 35° and 40° 30′ E. long., having, N. and N.W., Nubia ; E., the territory of the Danakils; S., the country of the Gallas; and W., the regions of the Upper Nile. It has an area of 1 It is usual to include in Abyssinia the flat country which lies between it and the Red Sea, and to regard the latter as forming its boundary on the east. This, however, is not strictly correct. Abyssinia proper comprises only the mountainous portion of this territory, the low lying portion being inhabited by distinct and hostile tribes, and claimed by the Viceroy of Egypt as part of his dominions. The low country is very unhealthy, the soil dry and arid, and with few exceptions uncultivated, whereas the highlands are generally salubrious; well watered, and in many parts very fertile. This arid track of country is only a few miles broad at Massowah, in the north, but widens out to 200 or 300 miles at

Tajurrah, in the south. It is, in a great measure, owing to Abyssinia being thus cut off from intercourse with the civilised world by this inhospitable region, which has for three centuries been in the hands of enemies, that it is at present so far sunk in ignorance and barbarism.

about 200,000 square miles, and a population of from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000.

The name Abyssinia, or more properly Habessinia, is derived from the Arabic word Habesch, which signifies mixture or confusion, and was applied to this country by the Arabs on account of the mixed character of the people. This was subsequently Latinised by the Portuguese into Abassia and Abassinos, and hence the present name. The Abyssinians call themselves Itiopyavan, and their country Itiopia, or Manghesta Itiopia, the kingdom of Ethiopia.

The country of Abyssinia rises rather abruptly from the low arid district on the borders of the Red Sea in lofty ranges of mountains, and slopes away more gradually to the westward, where the tributaries of the Nile have formed numerous deep valleys. It consists for the most part of extensive and elevated table-lands, with mountain ranges extending in different directions, and intersected by numerous Valleys. The table-lands are generally from 6000 to 9000 feet above the level of the sea, but in the south there are

some of considerable extent, which attain a height of more than 10,000 feet. The mountains in various parts of the country rise to 12,000 and 13,000 feet above the sea, and some of the peaks of Samen are said to reach to 15,000 feet, and to be always covered with snow. The average height of the range which divides the streams flowing to the east from those that flow westward is about 8000 feet, rising to 10,000 or 11,000 in the south, and sinking in the north. The whole country presents the appearance of having been broken up and tossed about in a remarkable manner, the mountains assuming wild and fantastic forms, with sides frequently abrupt and precipitous, and only accessible by very difficult passes. The Samen range of mountains are the highest in Abyssinia, and together with the Lamalmon and Lasta mountains form a long but not continuous chain, running from north to south.

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Sketch Chart of Abyssinia. The principal rivers of Abyssinia are tributaries of the Nile. The western portion of the country may be divided into three regions, drained respectively by the Mareb, the Atbara, and the Abai. The most northern of these rivers is the Mareb, which rises in the mountains of Taranta, flows first south, then west, and afterwards turns to the north, where it is at length, after a course of upwards of 500 miles, lost in the sand, but in the rainy season it falls into the Atbara. The Atbara, or Takazza, rises in the mountains of Lasta, and flowing first north, then west, and again turning to the north, at length falls into the Nile, after a course of about 800 miles. The Abai, Bahr-el-Azrek or Blue River, the eastern branch of the Nile, and considered by Bruce to be the main stream of that river, rises from two mountains near Geesh, in lat. 10° 59′ 25′′ N., long. 36° 55′ 30′′ E., about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. It flows first north to the Lake of Dembea or Tzana, then takes a long semicircular sweep round the province of Godjam, and afterwards flows northward to about the 15th degree of N. lat., where it unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, which has now been ascertained to be the true Nile. The Hawash, the principal river of eastern Abyssinia, rises about lat. 9° 30′ N., long. 38° E., and, flowing in a north-easterly direction towards the Red Sea, is lost in Lake Aussa, lat.

11° 25′ N., long. 41° 40′ E. The principal lake of Abyssinia is the Dembea, which lies between 11° 30′ and 12° 30′ N. lat., and 37° and 37° 35' E. long., being about 60 miles in length by 40 in width, and containing a number of small islands. It is fed by numerous small streams. The lake of Ashangi, in lat. 12° 35' N., long. 39° 40′ E., is about 4 miles long by 3 broad, and upwards of 8000 feet above the

sea.

The fundamental rocks of Tigré, and probably of all Abyssinia, are metamorphic. They compose the mass of the table-land, and while they occupy no inconsiderable portion of its surface, they are exposed, in Tigré at least, in every deep valley. The metamorphics vary greatly in mineral character, "every intermediate grade being found between the most coarsely crystalline granite and a slaty rock so little altered that the lines of the original bedding are still apparent. Perhaps the most prevalent form of rock is a rather finely crystalline gneiss. Hornblende-schist and mica-schist are met with, but neither of the minerals from which they are named appears to be so abundant as in some metamorphic tracts. On the other hand, a compact felspathic rock, approaching felsite in composition, is prevalent in places, as in the Suru defile, between Komayli and Senafé." There are a few exceptions, but as a general rule it may be asserted that in the neighbourhood of the route followed by the British army, so much of the country as is more than 8000 feet above the sea consists of bedded traps, and this is probably the case in general over Abyssinia. "Between the traps and the metamorphics a series of sandstones and limestones intervene, one group of the former underlying the latter. The limestone alone is fossiliferous, and is of Jurassic age." "On the route to Magdala volcanic rocks were first met with at Senafé, where several hills consist of trachyte, passing into claystone and basalt. Trap hills, chiefly of trachyte, are dotted over the country to the southward as far as Fokada, a distance of nearly 30 miles. Here a great range of bedded traps commences, and extends for about 25 miles to the south, passing to the west of Adigerat." At Meshek, two marches south of Antalo, "the route entered high ranges entirely composed of trap, and thence no other rocks were seen as far as Magdala." "The trappean rocks belong to two distinct and unconformable groups. The lower of these is much inclined, while the higher rests on its upturned and denuded edges." Denudation has evidently been going on to a great extent in this country. One of its most striking features are the deep ravines which have been worked out by the action of the streams, sometimes to the depth of 3000 or 4000 feet. "How much of the Abyssinian highlands has been removed by these great torrents, and spread as an alluvial deposit over the basin of the Nile ?" "Probably over the whole of northern Abyssinia there existed at least 4000 feet of bedded traps, of which now only a few vestiges remain."—W. T. Blanford.

Abyssinia is said to enjoy "probably as salubrious a climate as any country on the face of the globe."Parkyns. The heat is by no means oppressive, a fine light air counteracting the power of the sun; and during the rainy season, the sky being cloudy, the weather is always agreeable and cool, while the rain itself is not very severe. In certain of the low valleys, however, malarious influences prevail before and after the rainy season, and bring on dangerous fevers. On the higher parts the cold is sometimes intense, particularly at night. The natural division of the seasons is into a cold, a hot, and a rainy season. The cold season may be said to extend from October to February, the hot from the beginning of March to the middle of June, and the wet or monsoon period from this time to the end of September. The rainy season is of importance, not only in equalising the temperature, increasing

the fertility, and keeping up the water supply of the country, but, as Sir S. Baker has shown, it plays a most important part in the annual overflow of the Nile.

On the summits and slopes of the highest mountains the vegetation is of a thoroughly temperate and even English character; the plateaux have a flora of the same character; while on the lower slopes of the hills and in the ravines occur many trees and shrubs of warmer climes. "The general appearance of the plateaux and plains is that of a comparatively bare country, with trees and bushes thinly scattered over it, and clumps and groves only occurring round villages and churches. But the glens and ravines in the plateau sides, each with its little bright spring, are often thickly wooded, and offer a delicious contrast to the open country."-Markham. This refers more particularly to the northern portion of the country, that drained by the Mareb; the central and southern parts are much more fertile and productive. Here the fertility is so great that in some parts three crops are raised annually. Agriculture receives considerable attention, and large quantities of maize, wheat, barley, peas, beans, &c., are grown. Very extensively cultivated is teff (Poa abyssinica), a herbaceous plant with grains not larger than the head of a pin, of which is made the bread in general use throughout the country. The low grounds produce also a kind of corn called tocussa, of which a black bread is made, which constitutes the food of the lower classes. Coffee grows wild on the western mountains, and the vine and sugar-cane are cultivated in favourable localities. Cotton is also grown to a considerable extent. Among the fruit-trees are the date, orange, lemon, pomegranate, and banana. Myrrh, balsam, and various kinds of valuable medicinal plants are common.

Most of the domestic animals of Europe are found here. The cattle are in general sinall, and the oxen belong to the humped race. The famous Galla oxen have horns sometimes four feet long. The sheep belong to the short and fat-tailed race, and are covered with wool. Goats are very common, and have sometimes horns two feet in length. The horses are strong and active. Of wild animals the spotted hyena is among the most numerous, as well as the fiercest and most destructive, not only roaming in immense numbers over the country, but frequently entering the towns, and even the houses of the inhabitants. elephant and rhinoceros are numerous in the low grounds. The Abyssinian rhinoceros has two horns; its skin, which has no folds, is used for shields, and for lining drinking vessels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. Crocodiles and hippopotami are plentiful in the rivers; lions, panthers, and leopards are seen occasionally, and buffaloes frequently. Among other animals may be mentioned as common various species of antelopes, wild swine, monkeys, hares, squirrels, several species of hyrax, jackals, &c.

The

The birds of Abyssinia are very numerous, and many of them remarkable for the beauty of their plumage. Great numbers of eagles, vultures, hawks, and other birds of prey are met with; and partridges, snipes, pigeons, parrots, thrushes, and swallows are very plentiful. Among insects the most numerous and useful is the bee, honey everywhere constituting an important part of the food of the inhabitants, and several of the provinces paying a large proportion of their tribute in this article. Of an opposite class is the locust, the ravages of which here, as in other parts of Northern Africa, are terrible. Serpents are not numerous, but several species are poisonous.

The inhabitants of Abyssinia form a number of different tribes, and evidently belong to several distinct races. The majority are of the Caucasian race, and are in general wellformed and handsome, with straight and regular features, lively eyes, hair long and straight or somewhat curled, and colour dark olive, approaching to black. Rüppell regards

race.

them as identical in features with the Bedouin Arabs. The tribes inhabiting Tigré, Amhara, Agow, &c., belong to this The Galla race, who came originally from the south, have now overrun the greater part of the country, constituting a large portion of the soldiery, and, indeed, there are few of the chiefs who have not an intermixture of Galla blood in their veins. They are fierce and turbulent in character, and addicted to cruelty. Many of them are still idolaters, but most of them have now adopted the Mohammedan faith, and not a few of them the Christianity of the Abyssinians. They are generally large and well-built, of a brown complexion, with regular features, small deeply-sunk but very bright eyes, and long black hair. A race of Jews, known by the name of Falashas, inhabit the district of Samen. They affirm that their forefathers came into the country in the days of Rehoboam, but it seems more probable that they arrived about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem. From the 10th century they enjoyed their own constitutional rights, and were subject to their own kings, who, they pretend, were descended from King David, until the year 1800, when the royal race became extinct, and they then became subject to Tigré.

The prevailing religion of Abyssinia is a very corrupted form of Christianity. This is professed by the majority of the people, as well as by the reigning princes of the different states. There are also scattered over the country many Mohammedans, and some Falashas or Jews. Christianity was introduced into this country about the year 330, but since that time it has been so corrupted by errors of various kinds as to have become little more than a dead formality mixed up with much superstition and Judaism. Feasts and fast-days are very frequent, and baptism and the Lord's supper are dispensed after the manner of the Greek Church. The children are circumcised, and the Mosaic commandments with respect to food and purification are observed. The eating of animals which do not chew the cud and which have not cloven hoofs is prohibited. The ecclesiastical body is very numerous, consisting of priests of various kinds, with monks and nuns, and is looked upon with great awe and reverence. If a priest be married previous to his ordination, he is allowed to remain so; but no one can marry after having entered the priesthood. The primate or chief bishop is called Abuna (i.e., our father), and is nominated by the patriarch of Cairo, whom they acknowledge as their spiritual father. The churches are rude edifices, chiefly of a circular form, with thatched roofs, tho interior being divided into three compartments,—an outer one for the laity, one within for the priests, and in the centre the Holy of Holies, exactly after the manner of a Jewish temple. The worship consists merely in reading passages of Scripture and dispensing the Lord's supper, without any preaching. Like the Greek Church, they bave no images of any kind in their places of worship, but paintings of the saints are very common-their faces always in full, whatever may be the position of their bodies. They have innumerable saints, but above all is the Virgin, whom they regard as queen of heaven and earth, and the great intercessor for the sins of mankind. Their reverence for a saint is often greater than for the Almighty, and a man who would not hesitate to invoke the name of his Maker in witness to a falsehood may decline so to use the name of St Michael or St George. Legends of saints and works of religious controversy form almost their entire literature. "At present," says Bishop Gobat, "the Christians of Abyssinia are divided into three parties, so inimical to each other that they curse one another, and will no longer partake of the sacrament together. It is one single point of theology that disunites them--the unceasing dispute concerning the unction of Jesus Christ."

In manners the Abyssinians are rude and barbarous

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