procure water, and here Almeida was killed (March 1, 1510) in an unprovoked attack upon the Caffre natives, during which he showed great personal courage. His body was recovered on the following day, frightfully mutilated, and received a hasty burial.

ALMERIA, a modern province of Spain, comprehending the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of Granada. It is bounded on the N. by Jaen and Murcia, on the E. and S. by Murcia and the Mediterranean, and on the W. by Granada; with an area of about 3300 square miles. The province is traversed by mountain ridges, some of them of considerable elevation, with corresponding valleys and plains of great fertility. The principal sierras are those of Maria, Almahilla, Cabrera, Almagrera, Gata, and Gador, and in the W. some offshoots of the Sierra Nevada. The most considerable rivers are the Almanzora, running from west to east, with a course of about 50 miles; the Almeria, flowing from north-west to south-east; and the Adra from north to south, watering the fertile district between the Sierra de Gador and the Alpujarras. On the S. coast is the Gulf of Almeria, a spacious bay, 25 miles wide at the entrance, and about 10 miles in depth. The climate of the province is mild, except in the interior, where the winter is cold. On the coast rain seldom falls, and south-west winds prevail. The inhabitants are principally engaged in mining and agriculture. Many of the proprietors farm their own land, the number of landed properties being 44,858, while the tenants are only 7365. Of the area of the province, 376,698 acres are arable and pasture land; 13,538 acres vineyards; 5360 acres olive plantations; 39,797 acres cultivated mountain and wood lands; and 1,686,738 acres uncultivated. There are 438,357 head of live stock. All kinds of grain are raised in abundance. The common fruits are plentiful, as well as oranges, lemons, and vines. Much excellent silk is produced in the western districts; cotton is raised to some extent along the coast, and the sugar-cane is also cultivated. Cattle are extensively bred; those of the valley of the Almeria are especially remarkable for their size and beauty. The province is one of the richest in minerals of all Spain, the mountains yielding silver, mercury, lead, antimony, copper, and iron. The silver mines of the Sierra de Almagrera, opened in 1839, produced in 1843 nearly 1,700,000 ounces; while the lead mines of the Sierra de Gador are computed to have yielded, from 1795 to 1841 inclusive, 11,000,000 quintals of lead, and the present annual output is from 30,000 to 40,000 tons of ore. In the Sierra de Gata, jaspers and agates are found; in the Sierra Nevada, to the west, are the celebrated quarries of Macael marble; and the Sierra Cabrera yields antimony, malachite, gypsum, magnetic iron, &c. The manufactures of the province consist chiefly of esparto cordage, white-lead, shot, saltpetre, soap, leather, and earthenware. The principal exports are lead, esparto, barilla, and soap; while the imports include coal and machinery from England, woollen and cotton stuffs from Catalonia, silk from Valencia and Malaga, and linen from Marseilles and Gibraltar. From the want of adequate facilities for communication, the development of the agricultural and mining resources of Almeria has not been so rapid as might have been expected. The disturbances attending the revolution of 1868 have also had a prejudicial effect. Education is in a backward state, the proportion of the population at school being only fifteen in the thousand. Crime, although great, is not excessive, offences against the person forming the greater number of the cases tried. The people generally are simple, sober, and religious. Population in 1870, estimated at 361,553.

ALMERIA, the capital of the above province, lies on the Gulf of Almeria, on the Mediterrancan, 72 miles E.S.E

of Granada. From the strength of the port it was deemed by the Moorish kings of Granada one of the most valuable of their fortresses and their best commercial harbour. Sailing hence, their cruisers overawed the Catalans and Italians, and their merchant ships conveyed the produce of the country to Africa, Egypt, and Syria. In the time of the Moors Almeria was the seat of hordes of pirates. The walls of the town, and the Moorish fortress, or Alcazaba, overlooking it, as well as the architecture of many of the houses, still attest its Moorish origin. It is pretty well built, and has several handsome squares, although the streets are generally narrow. Almeria is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral and theological seminaries. Off the port there is good anchorage in 12 and 14 fathoms water; and in addition to its landward defences the place is protected towards the sea by the forts of Trinidad and Tiro. In 1866, 46 vessels, of 21,603 tons, with cargoes, entered and cleared the port; and the annual value of the exports is about £50,000. The manufactures are trifling, but there is a good export trade in wine, soda, esparto, silk, and lead; while the imports consist chiefly of coal and manufactured goods. Here there are also some mineral springs. Population (1857), 27,036.

ALMOHADES (Almoahedun, Unitarian), a Mahometan dynasty that flourished in Africa and in Spain during the 12th and 13th centuries. Mohammed-Ibn-Abdallah, the founder of the Almoahedun sect, was the son of a lamplighter in the great mosque at Sous-el-Aksa. He studied at Cordova, and afterwards visited Cairo and Baghdad, where he became the disciple of the famous philosopher Algazali. In order to establish his power with his countrymen, he connected himself with Abd-el-Mumen, a young Mussulman of great abilities, whom he sent forth as his apostle to propagate the new doctrine (1116–17); while in his own person he affected an unusual degree of piety and mortification, appearing in tattered garments, and interdicting the use of wine and music and every gratification of the senses. His fame spread rapidly among the mountain tribes of Mahgreb, and the ignorant multitude adopted his opinions with eager zeal. His followers saluted him as the Al-Mehedi on the 28th November 1121. Entering the city of Marocco, this new prophet foretold the downfall of the existing dynasty, and mocked the authority of the reigning prince Ali-Ibn-Yussef. Ali, lulled in security, despised his predictions as the mere ravings of a fanatic; and it was not without some difficulty that he was at length prevailed on to banish him from the city. Mohammed retired to the mountains, and fortified the town of Tinmal, which he defended against every assault of his enemies (1123). His retreat became the rendezvous of a numerous sect, who assumed the title of Almoahedi, or Almohades, and asserted that they alone of all the Mussulmans maintained the religion of Islam in its original purity. Many Arab and Berber tribes acknowledged him as their political chief, and 20,000 soldiers rallied around his standard. Ali only perceived the error he had committed when it was too late: his armies, at each encounter, were panic-struck, and fled. Yet notwithstanding the great success of the Almohades, the vast empire of the Almoravides was not at once subdued: and Mohammed, after an ineffectual attempt to reduce the city of Marocco, died in the year 1130, having failed to accomplish the object of his ambition, the possession of a throne. He was succeeded by Abd-el-Mumen, who assumed the title of Emir-el-Mumenin, or Commander of the Faithful. During the thirty years that he reigned, and under his descendants, Yussef and Yakub, called Almanzor-Billah, the dynasty of the Almohades was exceedingly illustrious, and the arts flourished greatly. They rendered themselves masters of

declared insolvent. To these calamities was added an imprisonment for libel and a sentence of outlawry. Being enabled at last to return to Boxmoor, he continued for some years a career of undiminished literary activity. His last work, a Life of Wilkes, in five volumes (1805), was perhaps his worst, being entirely wanting in proportion and arrangement. He died on the 12th December 1805. A complete list of Almon's works, most of which appeared anonymously, is given in Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica. Though their literary merit is not great, they are of very considerable value to the student of the political history of the period.

He

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ALMON, JOHN, a political pamphleteer and publisher of considerable note, was born at Liverpool about 1738. In early life he was apprentice to a printer in his native town, and he subsequently spent two years at sea. came to London in 1758, and at once commenced a career which, if not important in itself, had a very important influence on the political history of the country. The opposition, hampered and harassed by the government to an extent that threatened the total suppression of independent opinion, were in great need of a channel of communication with the public, and they found what they wanted in Almon. He had become personally known to the leaders through various publications of his own which had a great though transient popularity; the more important of these being The Conduct of a late Noble Commander [Lord George Sackville] Examined (1759); a Review of the Reign of George II., published on the death of that monarch; Review of Mr Pitt's Administration (1761); and a collection of letters on political subjects. The review of Pitt's administration passed through four editions, and secured for its author the friendship of Lord Temple, to whom it was dedicated. Being thus in the counsels of the party, he was persuaded in 1763 to open a bookseller's shop in Piccadilly, chiefly for the publication and sale of political pamphlets. As he generally received with every pamphlet a sum sufficient to secure him against all contingencies, it cannot be said that he acted entirely from disinterested or patriotic motives. At the same time, he deserves the credit of intrepidity; and it cannot be denied that, whether he knew the full value of the principle for which he was contending or not, he did very much to secure the freedom of the press. The government of course were not unobservant of Almon's proceedings, and, as has often been the case, strengthened his influence by the very measures they took to repress it. In 1765 the Attorney-General moved to have him tried for the publication of the pamphlet entitled Juries and Libels, but the prosecution failed; and in 1770, for merely selling a copy of the London Museum containing Junius's celebrated "Letter to the King," he was sentenced by Lord Mansfield to pay a fine of ten marks, and give security for his good behaviour. It was this trial that called forth the letter to Lord Mansfield, one of the most bitter of the Junius series. Almon himself published an account of the trial, and of course did not let slip the opportunity of reprinting the matter that had been the ground of indictment, but no further proceedings were taken against him. In 1774 Almon commenced the publication of his Parliamentary Register, and he also issued an abstract of the debates from 1742, when Chandler's Reports ceased, to 1774. About the same time, having earned a competency, he retired to Boxmoor in Hertfordshire, though he still continued to write on political subjects. He afterwards became proprietor of the General Advertiser,

ALMOND. This is the fruit of Amygdalus communis, a plant belonging to the natural order Rosacea, sub-order Amygdaleæ or Drupiferæ. The tree appears to be a native of Asia, Barbary, and Marocco; but it has been extensively distributed over the warm temperate region of the Old World. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are oblonglanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and the flowers, which appear early in spring, are of a pink colour. The fruit is a drupe, having a downy outer coat, called the epicarp, covering a tough portion called the mesocarp, which encloses the reticulated hard stony shell or endocarp. The seed is the kernel which is contained within these coverings. The shell-almonds of trade consist of the endocarps enclosing the seeds. The tree grows in Syria and Palestine; and is referred to in the Bible under the name of Shaked, meaning " hasten." The word Luz, which occurs in Genesis xxx. 37, and which has been translated hazel, is supposed to be another name for the almond. In Palestine the tree flowers in January, and this hastening of the period of flowering seems to be alluded to in Jeremiah i. 11, 12, where the Lord asks the prophet, "What seest thou?" and he replies, "The rod of an almond-tree;" and the Lord says, "Thou hast well seen, for I will hasten my word to perform it." In Ecclesiastes xii. 5 it is said the "almond-tree shall flourish." This has often been supposed to refer to the resemblance of the hoary locks of age to the flowers of the almond; but this exposition is not borne out by the facts of the case, inasmuch as the flowers of the almond are not white but pink. The passage is more probably intended to allude to the hastening or rapid approach of old age. The application of Shaked or hasten to the almond is similar to the use of the name "May" for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in Britain. The rod of Aaron, mentioned in Numbers xvii., was taken from an almond-tree; and the Jews still carry rods of almond-blossom to the synagogues on great festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain kinds of ornamental carved work (Exodus xxv. 33, 34; xxxvii. 19, 20). Dr Tristram remarks: "The blossom of the almond is a very pale pink, but where, as in the

The Almond-tree (Amygdaius communis), the fruit of
which is a drupe with a tough mesocarp. The

Hebrew word Shaked is generally translated Al-
Numb. xvii. 8). The word Luz, which occurs in

mond (Gen. xliii. 11; Exod. xxv. 33, 34; xxxvii. 19;

Genesis xxx. 37, and is there translated Hazel, appears to be the name of the Almond-tree, while Shaked is the name of the fruit.

orchards near Nablous (Shechem), the peach and almond trees are intermingled, the almond looks white by comparison. In early spring it forms a beautiful feature in the landscape there, as the lower slopes of Gerizim, as well as the valley, are studded with almonds and peaches, in lively contrast with the deep green foliage of the orange-trees, and rivalling an apple orchard in splendour of colour. There are also many wild almond-trees on Mount Carmel. The tree seldom exceeds 12 to 16 feet in height." There are two varieties of the plant, the one producing sweet, the other bitter almonds. The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsin; while that of the latter has in addition a nitrogenous substance called amygdalin, which, by combination with emulsin, produces a volatile oil and prussic acid. The flowers of the bitter almond-tree (Amygdalus communis, variety amara) are larger and whiter than those of the sweet almond-tree (Amygdalus communis, variety dulcis). The sweet almond is bland and inodorous. There are numerous commercial varieties, of which the most esteemed is the Jordan almond, imported from Malaga. Valentia almonds are also valued. Fresh sweet almonds are nutritive and demulcent, but as the outer brown skin or episperm sometimes causes irritation of the alimentary canal, they are blanched by removal of this skin when used at dessert. When bitter almonds are pounded in water a ratafia odour is produced, on account of the formation of prussic acid. The essential oil or essence of almonds, so much employed for flavouring dishes, requires to be used with caution, as it possesses marked poisonous qualities. In some cases the oil, even when taken in small quantities, produces nettle-rash. The import of sweet almonds into Britain in 1870 amounted to 36,189 cwt.; of bitter almonds, 7618 cwt.

ALMONDBURY, an extensive parish and township of Yorkshire in England, lying to the S.E. of Huddersfield. As the manufactures of Huddersfield have increased, various outlying districts have been built on, so that the parish of Almondbury now includes a considerable part of that important and flourishing town. The parish contains 28,092 acres. The town lies on the river Calder, 2 miles S.E. of Huddersfield, and had formerly a cathedral and a strong castle. By some writers it is supposed to occupy the site of the Roman Campodunum mentioned by Antoninus; but whether or not, the place can boast a Roman origin-it was at least a town of importance in Saxon times, and a seat of the kings of Northumbria. It has a free grammar school founded by James I., a good church, and several other public buildings. The inhabitants of the town and parish are chiefly engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths, and woollen, cotton, and silk goods. In 1871 the population of the parish was 46,299; of the township, 11,669.

ALMONER, in its primitive sense, denotes an officer in religious houses, to whom belonged the management and distribution of the alms of the house. By the ancient canons, all monasteries were to spend at least a tenth part of their income in alms to the poor, and all bishops were required to keep almoners.

LORD ALMONER, OF LORD HIGH ALMONER OF ENGLAND, is an ecclesiastical officer, generally a bishop, who has a right to the forfeiture of all deodands and the goods of a felo de se, which he is to distribute among the poor. He has also, by virtue of an ancient custom, the power of giving the first dish from the king's table to whatever poor person he pleases, or, instead of it, an alms in money. See MAUNDAY THURSDAY.

ALMORA, the principal town in the British district of Kumaon, within the lieutenant-governorship of the NorthWestern Provinces, is situated in 29° 35′ N. lat., and 79° 42′ E. long. The town is built on the crest of a ridge of

A.D.

the Himalayas, running east and west, and 5337 feet above sea-level. It consists chiefly of a single street, about 50 feet wide and three-quarters of a mile long, closed by a gate at each end. A few detached houses, inhabited by Europeans, are scattered along the face of the mountain below the town. The town was captured by the Gurkhas in 1790, who constructed a fort on the eastern extremity of the ridge. Another citadel, Fort Moira, is situated on the other extremity of the ridge. Almorá is also celebrated as the scene of the British victory which terminated the war with Nepál in April 1815, and which resulted in the evacuation of Kumáon by the Gurkhas, and the annexation of the province by the British. According to the census of 1872, the town contains a population of 5900 souls. It has been constituted a municipality, the revenue and expenditure of which in 1871-72 is returned as follows:-Revenue-Receipts from octroi, £29, 16s.; housetax, £211, 8s.; other sources of income, £30, 14s.: total, £271, 18s. Expenditure-Establishment, including cost of collection, police, and conservancy, £182; repairs, £90, 16s.; other items, £3, 16s.: total, £276, 12s. ALMORAVIDES, a family of Mahometan princes who reigned in Africa and in Spain between 1073 and 1147 This appellation was derived from the sect of AlMorabethun (Dedicated to the service of God), which arose about the middle of the 11th century, among a poor ignorant tribe of Berbers inhabiting the mountains of Atlas, on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. At the request of a sheik of Lamtouna, who had acquired some taste for learning by travelling in the East, Abdallah-ben-Yazim, an Arabian of extraordinary erudition, consented to instruct the people in the truths of Islam. The enthusiasm of Abdallah created a like zeal in the hearts of his ignorant hearers; and by the energy and novelty of his discourses he so inflamed the minds of his disciples that they compelled those whom persuasion could not move to embrace the new religion. Thus Abdallah found himself at the head of a numerous sect, who soon began to regard him as their leader both in temporal and spiritual matters. Under the name of Almorabethun or Almoravides, they overran the country of Daza, lying between the desert of Sahara and the ancient Getulia, and ultimately extended their conquests from the shores of the Mediterranean to the frontiers of Nigritia. Abdallah died on the field of battle in the year 1058. He was succeeded by Abu-Bekr-Ibn-Omar, a man whose abilities were scarcely equal to the difficulties of the position in which he was placed. In 1072 he was supplanted by Yussef-Ibn-Tashfyn, to whom he had entrusted the government on setting out for Atlas to quell an insurrection of the Berbers. Yussef completely established the Almoravide power in Al-Magreb in 1073. On the invitation of Mohammed of Seville, he crossed to Algeciras in 1086, and at once marched against Alphonso VI., the most powerful prince in Christendom. They met in the plains of Zalaca (23d Oct. 1086), and Alphonso was defeated with terrible slaughter. The news of Yussef's success induced many of the Arabs of Spain to enlist under his victorious banner. In a third expedition to Spain (1091), he attacked Mohammed, and after a protracted siege became master of Seville. This conquest was followed by the subjugation of Almeria, Denia, Xativa, and Valencia. The acquisition of the Balearic Isles was the completion of this vast empire, which extended from the Ebro and the Tagus to the frontiers of Soudan. Although Marocco was his capital, he frequently visited his Spanish dominions; and on the last occasion, having assembled the governors of the province at Cordova, he appointed Ali, the youngest of his sons, as his successor. He then returned to Marocco, where he died at a very advanced age, 1106 A.D. (500 of the Hegira), after a reign of forty years.

Few kings have received so noble a heritage as that to which Ali succeeded. The first years of his reign were prosperous, though disturbed by the Almohades, who were preparing the way for the destruction of the Almoravides. Ali was at last obliged to recall from Spain his son Tashfyn, who was using his utmost endeavours to oppose the victorious career of Alphonso of Aragon, surnamed the Fighter. But the valour of Tashfyn was of little avail against the rising power of the Almohades: disaster followed disaster; and when, in 1143, he succeeded to the throne, but a moiety of the kingdom remained. It was in vain that he received succours from Spain, the troops from that soft climate being little fitted for service in the wild regions of Atlas. Driven from Tlemecen, he sought refuge in Oran; but Abd-el-Mumen appeared before its walls, and by threats so intimidated the inhabitants that Tashfyn was compelled to attempt escape on horseback, with his favourite wife behind him; but being closely pursued, he urged his horse over a precipice, and with his wife was dashed to pieces. With Tashfyn expired the domination of the Almoravides; for although they still remained in possession of the city of Marocco, their power was completely broken. IshakIbrahim, the son of Tashfyn, was taken and put to death at Alcazar in 1147, on the surrender of Marocco by treachery, and with him the dynasty of the Almoravides became extinct. The remnant of the sect, driven from Spain, took refuge in the Balearic Islands, but it was finally suppressed in 1208. (For the history of the Arabians in Spain, see the works of Cardonne, Condé, St Hilaire, D'Herbelot, Al-Makkari, and Dozy.)

ALMQVIST, KARL JONAS LUDWIG, one of the most extraordinary figures that the history of literature can produce, was born at Stockholm in 1793. He began life under highly favourable auspices; but becoming tired of a university career, he threw up the position he held in the capital to lead a colony of friends to the wilds of Wermland. This ideal Scandinavian life soon proved a failure; Almqvist found the pen easier to wield than the plough, and in 1829 we find him once more settled in Stockholm. Now began his literary life; and after bringing out several educational works, he made himself suddenly famous by the publication of his great novel, The Book of the Thorn-Rose. The career so begun developed with extraordinary rapidity; few writers have equalled Almqvist in productiveness and versatility; lyrical, epic, and dramatic poems; romances; lectures; philosophical, aesthetical, moral, political, and educational treatises; works of religious edification, studies in lexicography and history, in mathematics and philology, form the most prominent of his countless contributions to modern Swedish literature. So excellent was his style, that in this respect he has been considered the first of Swedish writers. His life was as varied as his work. Unsettled, unstable in all his doings, he passed from one lucrative post to another, at last subsisting entirely on the proceeds of literary and journalistic labour. More and more vehemently he espoused the cause of socialism in his brilliant novels and pamphlets; friends were beginning to leave him, foes beginning to triumph, when suddenly all minor criticism was silenced by the astounding news that Almqvist, convicted of forgery and charged with murder, had fled from Sweden. This occurred in 1851. For many years no more was heard of him; but it is now known that he went over to America, and under a feigned name succeeded in being appointed secretary to Abraham Lincoln. After Lincoln's death, Almqvist again fell under the ban of the law; his MSS., including several unprinted novels, were confiscated and destroyed, but he himself escaped to Europe, where under another alias he continued to exist a short time longer. His strange and sinister existence came to a close at Bremen in 1866. It is by his romances, un

doubtedly the best in Swedish, that his literary fame will mainly be supported; but his singular history will always point him out as a remarkable figure even when his works are no longer read. He was another Eugene Aram, but of greater genius, and so far more successful that he escaped the judicial penalty of his crimes. (E. W. G.)

ALMUG or ALGUM TREE. The Hebrew words Almuggim or Algummim are translated Almug or Algum trees in our version of the Bible (see 1 Kings x. 11, 12; 2 Chron. ii. 8, and ix. 10, 11). The wood of the tree was very precious, and was brought from Ophir (probably some part of India), along with gold and precious stones, by Hiram, and was used in the formation of pillars for the temple at Jerusalem, and for the king's house; also for the inlaying of stairs, as well as for harps and psalteries. It is probably the red sandal-wood of India (Pterocarpus santalinus). This tree belongs to the natural order Leguminosæ, sub-order Papilionacea. The wood is hard, heavy, closegrained, and of a fine red colour. It is different from the white fragrant sandal-wood, which is the produce of Santalum album, a tree belonging to a distinct natural order. ALMUNECAR, a small seaport town of Spain, in the province of Granada, about 33 miles south of the town of that name. It is a place of Moorish origin, and is tolerably well built. The harbour is fit for small vessels only, and is much exposed to gales from the east. Sugar, cotton, and fruits are the chief products of Almunecar and the surrounding country, which is naturally very fertile, but the trade is small compared with that of former times. Population, 5000.

ALNWICK, the county town of Northumberland, is situated on the south bank of the river Alne, 310 miles N. of London, 34 N. of Newcastle, and 29 S. of Berwick. There are remains of the old wall which surrounded the town, and one of the four gates still exists; but most of the houses are comparatively modern, and are laid out in wellpaved spacious streets. In the market-place there is a large town-hall, and a handsome building containing an assembly-room and a reading-room. Besides the parish church, Alnwick possesses a beautiful district church, a Roman Catholic chapel, and several Protestant dissenting places of worship. The chief employments are brewing, tanning, and brickmaking, but these manufactures are here of little importance. A small export trade is carried on through Alnmouth in corn, pork, and eggs, and a market is held every Saturday chiefly for these articles. The local government consists of a bailiff, nominated by the Duke of Northumberland, and twenty-four common councilmen, four of whom are elected annually as chamberlains; the councilmen fill up vacancies in their body from the freemen, who usually are about 300 in number. The ceremony of making freemen is of a very peculiar kind. The candidates, mounted on horseback, assemble in the market-place very early in the morning of St Mark's day— the 25th April-clad in white from head to foot, with swords by their sides, and attended by the bailiff and chamberlains, who are mounted and armed in the same manner. From the market-place they proceed, with music playing before them, to a large pool called Freeman's Well, where they dismount and draw up in a body at some dis tance from the water, and, on a given signal from the bailiff, rush into the pool, and scramble through the mud as fast as they can. As the water is generally very foul, they come out in a dirty condition; but they put on dry clothes, remount their horses, and ride at full gallop round the boundaries of the town. According to tradition, the observance of this custom was enjoined by King John to punish the inhabitants for their carelessness, the king having, it is said, lost his way, and been bemired in a bog, from their neglect of the roads near the town. To the

north west of the town is Alnwick Castle, which has belonged to the Northumberland family since 1310. In early times this fortress was an important defence against the Scotch, and was besieged by them on several occasions, most memorably in 1093, when Malcolm Canmore and his son Edward were slain under its walls; and in 1174, when William the Lion was defeated and taken prisoner. For a long time it was permitted to fall into decay, but it has recently been restored, and to some extent remodelled, and is now one of the most magnificent specimens of a baronial residence in England. The grounds are extensive, and contain the remains of two abbeys, Alnwick and Hulme. The population of Alnwick in 1871 was 5822.

ALOE. Aloes is a medicinal substance used as a purgative, and produced from various species of aloe, such as A. spicata, vulgaris, socotrina, indica, and purpurascens, all belonging to the natural order Liliaceæ. Several kinds of aloes are distinguished in commerce-Barbadoes, socotrine, hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes. The first two are those commonly used for medicinal purposes. Aloes is the inspissated juice of the leaves of the plant. When the leaves are cut the juice flows out, and is collected and evaporated. After the juice has been obtained, the leaves are sometimes boiled, so as to yield an inferior kind of aloes. The active principle is called aloein. Aloes is used in the form of extract, pill, tincture, and wine. It is irritant, and requires to be used with caution.

The plant called American aloe belongs to a different order, viz., Amaryllidaceae. The plant is called Agave Americana. The juice of the plant, taken immediately before flowering, is used in America for the manufacture of an intoxicating beverage. In Ecuador the spongy substance of the flower stem is used instead of tinder, and in the schools the green leaves serve as paper. A punishment among the Aztecs was introducing the spiny points of the leaves into the skin. The plant often delays flowering for many years, and then pushes up a flowering stalk with great rapidity, sometimes at the rate of 1 foot or even 2 feet in twenty-four hours. The fibrous matter procured from the agave by maceration supplies pita flax.

The aloes or lign aloes of the Bible (Numb. xxiv. 6, and Psalm xlv. 8) is quite different from the medicinal aloes. The Hebrew words ahalim and ahaloth, and the Greek word aloe, are rendered aloes in our version of the Scriptures. The substance is supposed by some to be the fragrant wood of Aquilaria Agallochum, a plant belonging to the natural order Aquilariacea. There are, however, considerable doubts as to the correctness of this view, more especially as the tree is a native of Cochin China, Silhet, and Northern India, and is not found in Chaldea or Syria. From the allusion made to the trees of lign aloes by Balaam, it seems probable that they were known as growing in Syria. It is quite possible, however, that the precious fragrant substance called aloes, and mentioned in Scripture along with cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, and spices, may have been brought from India. As a perfume it is noted in Psalm xlv. 8; Prov. vii. 17; Song of Sol. iv. 14. The use of aloes in perfuming the coverings of the dead is referred to in John xix. 39, 40.

ALOIDÆ, or ALOIADE, the designation of Otus and Ephialtes, sons of Poseidon by Iphimedea, wife of Aloeus. They are celebrated for their extraordinary stature, being 27 cubits in height and 9 in breadth when only nine years old. The story of their piling Pelion upon Ossa in their war with the Olympian gods is one of the best known of the early Greek myths. According to Homer's account, they were destroyed by Apollo ere their beards began to grow. (Odyssey, xi. 305; Iliad, v. 385.)

ALOMPRA, ALOUNG P'HOURA, founder of the reigning dynasty in Burmah, was born in 1711 at Monchaboo, a

small village 50 miles north-west of Ava. Of humble origin, he had risen to be chief of his native village when the invasion of Birmah by the king of Pegu in 1752 gave him the opportunity of attaining to the highest distinction. The whole country had tamely submitted to the invader, and the leading chiefs had taken the oaths of allegiance. Alompra, however, with a more independent spirit, not only contrived to regain possession of his village, but was able to defeat a body of Peguan troops that had been sent to punish him. Upon this the Birmese, to the number of a thousand, rallied to his standard, and marched with him upon Ava, which was recovered from the invaders before the close of 1753. For several years he prosecuted the war with uniform success. In 1754 the Peguans, to avenge themselves for a severe defeat at Keoum-nuoum, slew the king of Birmah, who was their prisoner. The son of the latter claimed the throne, and was supported by the tribe of Quois; but Alompra resisted, being determined to maintain his own supremacy. In 1755 Alompra founded the city of Rangoon. In 1757 he had established his position as one of the most powerful monarchs of the East by the invasion and conquest of Pegu. Ere a year elapsed the Peguans revolted but Alompra, with his usual promptitude, at once quelled the insurrection. The Europeans were suspected of having instigated the rising, and the massacre of the English at Negrais in October 1759 is supposed to have been approved by Alompra after the event, though there is no evidence that he ordered it. Against the Siamese, who were also suspected of having abetted the Peguan rebels, he proceeded more openly and severely. Entering their territory, he was just about to invest the capital when he was seized with an illness which proved fatal on the 15th May 1760. Alompra is certainly one of the most remarkable figures in modern Oriental history. To undoubted military genius he added considerable political sagacity, and he deserves particular credit for his efforts to improve the administration of justice. His cruelty and deceitfulness are faults common to all Eastern despots.

ALOST, or AALST, a town of Belgium, on the eastern frontier of the province of East Flanders, about midway between Ghent and Brussels. The Dender, a navigable tributary of the Scheldt, passes through the town, which is a clean, well-built place, surrounded by a wall with five gates. The church of St Martin, a fine edifice, although unfinished, contains a celebrated picture by Rubens, "St Roche Praying for the Cessation of the Plague." Among the other public buildings are a town-hall, which was founded about 1200 A.D., a college, and an hospital. The trade is extensive, chiefly in corn, oil, hops, and beer; and there are linen, lace, and cotton manufactories, and iron foundries of considerable importance. Alost was formerly the capital of imperial Flanders. The French under Turenne took it in 1667, but were obliged to abandon it after the battle of Ramillies in 1706. Population, 19,000.

ALPACA is a name applied generally to several allied South American wool-bearing animals, but more properly restricted to one of the species. It is further used to distinguish the wool obtained from these animals, and the woven textures manufactured from the wool are also known as alpacas. The alpacas or llamas are natives of the lofty table-lands and mountain-range of the Andes in Peru and Chili, and in that region of the globe they long occupied the position held in the Old World by their congeners of larger size, the camels. To the ancient Peruvians the llamas were the only available beasts of burden and wool-bearing creatures, just as to the present day the camel is to the tribes of the Asiatic deserts. The camel (Camelus) and the llama (Auchenia) form the two existing genera of the family Camelida; and thus in a zoological sense also the one