minded emperor procured the assassination of his minister, | the only Roman who had proved himself able to cope with the Gothic forces, and broke all the treaties which Stilicho had made with Alaric. The latter at once marched upon Rome (408) by the Via Flaminia, and laid siege to the city. On coming to treat with him, the Romans found his demands so extravagant that they threatened a desperate resistance, to which Alaric made the well-known reply, "The closer hay is pressed, the easier is it mown." At last the barbarian was induced to retire by the promise of 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver, besides other treasure. The respite, however, was but for a time. Honorius, who had left Rome for Ravenna, refused to ratify by treaty certain conditions, moderate in themselves, on which Alaric firmly insisted, and the capital was again at the mercy of the enemy. With commendable forbearance, Alaric contented himself at first with taking possession of Ostia, from which he summoned the city to surrender, threatening the immediate destruction of the food stores in case of refusal. The terrified people at once opened their gates, and agreed that the conqueror should appoint another emperor in place of Honorius. Alaric's choice fell upon Attalus, the prefect of the city, who, though well received at first, soon proved himself thoroughly incompetent, and Honorius had to be restored. While the conferences as to the restoration were still being carried on at Ravenna, the treachery of Honorius occasioned yet another and more disastrous siege of Rome by the Goths. Sarus, a barbarian and a hereditary enemy of the house of Balti, was permitted by the emperor to attack the camp of the Goths and return in triumph to Ravenna. Alaric was naturally indignant, iaid siege to Rome for the third time, and gained an entrance by the Salarian gate on the night of the 24th August 410. For six days the city was given over to the horrors of a pillage, which the humane orders of Alaric did but little to mitigate. On the 29th August Alaric withdrew his troops from Rome, and led them into southern Italy, which he ravaged for several months. Towards the close of the year, while engaged in the siege of Cosentia (Cosenza), he was seized with an illness which proved fatal after a very short duration. He was buried with his treasures in the bed of the river Busentinus, which was diverted from its channel for that purpose, and all the prisoners who were engaged in the work were put to death in order that the place of his sepulture might remain unknown. The character of Alaric has been somewhat variously represented by historians. In forming an estimate of it many have been misled by the use of the term barbarian, which, as applied to him, it should be remembered, indicates a national and not a personal distinction. Many proofs may be found of his humanity and moderation in trying circumstances, while, on the other hand, the charges of cruelty brought against him are not borne out by evidence. His marked respect for Christianity is explained by the fact that, if he was not himself a Christian, he had come early under Christian influence, having had frequent intercourse with Arian teachers. ALARIC II., eighth king of the Goths in Spain, succeeded his father Euric or Evaric about 484. His dominions not only included the greater part of Spain (Hispania Tarraconensis and Bætica), but extended into Gaul as far as the rivers Rhone and Loire. In religion Alaric was an Arian, but that he was tolerant of the orthodox Catholics is shown by the decrees of the Council of Agde, summoned by him in 506. He displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative code for his dominions. This is generally known as the Breviarium | Alaricianum. It contains six books of the code of Theodosius, and is therefore sometimes called the Corpus Theodosii. The full text has been given by Savigny. Alaric was of a peaceful disposition, and endeavoured strictly to maintain the treaty which his father had concluded with the Franks. Clovis, however, desiring to obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in 507 at Voglade (Vouillé), near Poitiers, where the Goths were defeated, and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken and slain by Clovis himself. ALASCO, JOHN (in Polish, Lascki), a Polish nobleman, born in 1499, who travelled extensively in his youth, and during a residence in Zurich imbibed the doctrines of the Reformation from Zwingli. At Basel in 1525 he had frequent intercourse with Erasmus, who held him in great esteem, and bequeathed his library to him. On his return to his native country he was offered more than once ecclesiastical preferment, which the change in his religious opinions prevented him from accepting. With the view of securing more freedom, he quitted Poland, and after travel ling for a time, became pastor of a Protestant congregation at Embden, in East Friesland, in 1542. Foreseeing per secution there, he went to London in 1551, on the invitation of Cranmer, and became superintendent of the congregation of foreign Protestants, most of whom were driven into exile like himself in consequence of the Interim. The revenues of the church of Augustin Friars were assigned to support him and four assistant ministers, who had to be approved by the king. On the accession of Mary in 1553, Alasco and all his congregation were banished. In 1556 he returned to Poland, where he died on the 13th January 1560. Alasco wrote a number of theological treatises, chiefly in defence of the doctrine of the sacraments as held by the Swiss Reformers, and he was one of the eighteen divines who prepared the Polish version of the Bible, which was published in 1563. ALA-SHEHR, a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Anatolia, 83 miles E. of Smyrna. It is dirty and illbuilt; but, standing on elevated ground, and commanding the prospect of the extensive and fertile plain of the Hermus, presents at a distance an imposing appearance. It is the seat of a Greck archbishop, and has five Christian churches and fifteen mosques. The city occupies the site of the ancient Philadelphia, one of the "seven churches in Asia" of the Apocalypse. The ancient city, founded two centuries B.C., was subject to frequent earthquakes. In more modern times it was celebrated for its prolonged resistance to the Turks, who took it in 1390, after all the other cities of Asia Minor had surrendered. Ala-Shehr has an active trade, and the population is about 18,000. ALASKA, or ALIASKA, formerly RUSSIAN AMERICA, but now a territory of the United States, is a vast tract of country forming the north-west portion of North America, bounded on the N. by the Arctic Ocean, on the E. by British America, and on the S. and W. by the Pacific Ocean. The name was formerly confined to a long narrow peninsula stretching into the Pacific, but has been extended to the whole territory. Alaska comprises the whole of North America from 141° W. long. to Behring Strait, and also numerous islands along the coast, notably Prince of Wales Islands, King George III. Archipelago, the Kodiak Islands, and the Aleutian Islands, which stretch seaward from the extremity of the peninsula. From the main portion of the territory a narrow strip, with a breadth of about 50 miles, extends south-east along the Pacific coast, and terminates at the confines of British Columbia, in 54° 40′ N. lat. From north to south the extreme length of Coast. Rivers. Alaska is about 1100 miles, and the greatest breadth from east to west is 800 miles. The area of the whole territory is estimated at 514,700 square miles. The numerous islands, creeks, and inlets of Alaska lengthen out its coast-line to 7860 miles, an extent greater than that of the eastern coast-line of the United States. Beginning at the south-east, the chief creeks and bays are Cook's Inlet, Bristol Bay, Norton Sound, and Kotzebue Sound; while, following the same order, the principal headlands, in addition to the extremity of the peninsula, are Cape Newenham and Cape Romanzoff in the Pacific, Cape Prince of Wales in Behring Strait, and Cape Lisburne, Icy Cape, and Point Barrow in the Arctic Ocean. Point Barrow is in 71° 23′ N. lat., and is the extreme northern point of the country. The exploration of the northern coast was chiefly the work of the British navigators Cook, Beechy, and Franklin, and of the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company. The principal river of Alaska is the Yukon, or Kwichpak, which rises in British America, and, receiving the Porcupine river at Fort Yukon, flows westward across the territory, and falls into the Pacific Ocean to the south of Norton Sound. At a distance of 600 miles from the sea this magnificent river has a width of more than a mile. Its tributaries would in Europe be reckoned large rivers, and its volume is so great that 10 miles out from its principal mouth the water is fresh. Among the other rivers of Alaska are the Copper river, the Suschitna, the Nuschagak, and the Kuskokwim, falling into the Pacific, and the Colville, Mountains. flowing northward into the Arctic Ocean. A great mountain range extends from British Columbia, in a north-west direction, along the coast of Alaska, the summit being covered with snow and glaciers. Mount St Elias, an active volcano, in 60° 18′ N. lat., and 140° 30′ W. long., rises to the height of 14,970 feet above the sea. The mountain chain runs out along the peninsula which has given its name to the country, and at the western extremity there are several volcanic cones of great elevation; while in the island of Uminak, separated from the mainland by only a narrow strait, there are enormous volcanoes, one rising to more than 8000 feet in height. In the interior and to the north the country is also mountainous, with great intervening plains. History. The north-west coast of this part of America was discovered and explored by a Russian expedition under Behring in 1741; and at subsequent periods settlements were made by the Russians at various places, chiefly for the prosecution of the fur trade. In 1799 the territory was granted to a Russo-American fur company by the Emperor Paul VIII., and in 1839 the charter of the company was renewed. New Archangel, in the island of Sitka, was the principal settlement, but the company had about forty stations. They exported annually 25,000 skins of the seal, sea-otter, beaver, &c., besides about 20,000 sea-horse teeth. The privileges of the company expired in 1863; and in 1867 the whole Russian possessions in America were ceded to the United States for a money payment of $7,200,000. The treaty was signed on 30th March, and ratified on 20th June 1867; and on 9th October following, the possession of the country was formally made over to a military force of the United States at New Archangel. It still remains in the military keeping of the United States, no steps having been taken to organise a territorial government. It has, however, been constituted a revenue district, with New Archangel, or Sitka, as the port of entry. Since Alaska was ceded to the United States considerable information has been collected as to the resources of the less sterile parts of the country; but the central and northern parts of this region are only known as the inhospitable home of some wander ing tribes of Indians and Esquimaux. Portions of Alaska have also been recently explored by the employés of the Russo-American Telegraph Company in surveying a route for a line of telegraph which was designed to cross from America to Asia near Behring Strait-a project which was abandoned, after an expenditure of £600,000, on communication with Europe being secured by the Atlantic cable. The climate of the south-western coast of Alaska is Climate. tolerably mild, considering its high latitude. The great warm current of the Pacific, sweeping in a north-easterly circuit from the East India Islands, and corresponding very much in character and effects to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, washes its shores; and while it modifies the temperature, also causes an excessive rainfall. At Sitka the mean temperature is 42°.9, and the average rainfall about 80 inches. Alaska will never have any great agricultural Produce. value. From the great amount of rain and the want of heat, cereals grow, but will not ripen, and vegetables do not thrive. Native grasses and berries grow plentifully, but the chief wealth of the country is in its vast forests, in the furs of its wild animals, and in the fish with which its rivers and seas abound. The forests, rising from the coast and covering the mountains to a height of 2000 feet, consist of a very durable yellow cedar, spruee, larch, and fir of great size, and also cypress and hemlock. The wild animals include the elk, the deer, and various species of bear, and also many fur-bearing animals, such as the wolf and fox, the beaver, ermine, marten, otter, and squirrel. Near the coast and islands there are innumerable furbearing seals, which are caught in great numbers by the settlers; but from the rigour of the climate and the arduous nature of the work, the trapping of the animals of the interior is left to the Indians. The salmon abounds in the rivers, and there are great banks along the shores, the favourite haunt of cod and other fish. About eighty whalers prosecute their fishing off the coast of Alaska. Coal and iron are the most important minerals, but the value of the deposits remains to be ascertained. The population is very limited, consisting of 8000 whites Populaand 15,000 Indians, with some Esquimaux on the northern tion. coast. The Indians are rapidly decreasing in number, and are described as treacherous and discontented. New Archangel, now called Sitka, in the island of Sitka, in 57° 3′ N. lat., and 135° 18′ W. long., was the seat of the Russian governor, and is the headquarters of the United States authorities. It contains about 1500 inhabitants, is the residence of a Greek bishop, and has fortifications, magazines, and a magnetic observatory. Of the other settlements, Fort Nicholas on Cook's Inlet, and Fort St Michael on Norton Sound, are the more important. The admirable harbours on the coast and the great navigable river Yukon afford facilities for the formation of new settlements and the increase of trade by the Americans. At the junction of the Porcupine river and the Yukon a fort was established by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1847. (See Whymper, Travels in Alaska and on the Yukon, 1868; Dall, Alaska and its Resources, 1870.) ALATRI, the ancient Alatrium, a town of Italy, 6 miles N. of Frosinone, in the province of that name, which until 1870 formed part of the papal territory. It is the see of a bishop, and has considerable remains of Pelasgian antiquity. Population of commune, 11,370. ALAVA, one of the Provincias Vascongadas, or Basque Provinces, in the north of Spain. It is of a triangular shape, and is bounded on the N. by Guipuzcoa and Biscay, on the E. by Navarre, on the S.W. by Logrono, and on the W. by Burgos; with an area of about 1200 square miles. The surface of Alava is very mountainous, especially on the north, where a part of the Pyrenees forms its natural boundary. It is separated from Logrono by the Ebro, and the other rivers are the Zadorra and the Ayuda. The soil in the valleys is fertile, yielding wheat, barley, maize, flax, hemp, and fruits. Oil, and a poor kind of wine called chacoli, are also produced. Many mountains are clothed with forests of oak, chestnuts, beeches, and other trees, and contain iron, copper, lead, and marble. Salt is also found in large quantities in the province. The manufactures of Alava are unimportant; coarse cloth, iron ware, earthenware, hats, and shoes being among the chief. The capital of the province is Vitoria. Population in 1870, 102,494. were baptized on Easter-day to wear an alb for the eight days following, and hence the Sunday after Easter was called Dominica in Albis. ALBA, the ancient Alba Pompeia, a town of Italy, in the province of Cuneo, situated on the Tanaro, 30 miles S.E. of Turin. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a cathedral, founded in 1486, as well as other churches and religious establishments. It has a large trade in cattle, and the surrounding district is very fertile, producing silk, wine, oil, grain, and fruits, and also marble and rock-salt. Population of the commune (1865), 9687. ALBA LONGA, the most ancient town in Latium, was situated 15 miles S.E. from Rome, on a ridge be tween the mountain and the lake that were both called from it Albanus. It derived its name probably from its elevated or Alpine situation, the story of the white sow discovered by Æneas on landing (Virgil, Æneid, iii. 390392) being of course mythical. Little beyond the bare fact of its existence for a considerable period as the foremost town in Latium can be accepted as strictly historical. According to the legendary accounts, it was founded by Ascanius, the son of Æneas, 300, or, as a later version has it, 360 years before the foundation of Rome. Fourteen kings, whose names are all preserved, are said to have reigned over it in succession. The names, however, are evidently an invention, having probably this substratum of historic truth, that the ruling family belonged to the Silvian gens. The city was destroyed by the Romans under Tullus Hostilius, and its inhabitants removed to Rome. Several of the patrician families, such as the Julii, Curiatii, Servilii, Tullii, Quintii, ascribed their origin to these immigrants from Alba. ALAVA, DON MIGUEL RICARDO D', a Spanish general and statesman, born at Vitoria in 1771. He served first in the navy, and had risen to be captain of a frigate when he exchanged into the army, receiving corresponding rank. In politics he followed a very devious course. At the assembly of Bayonne, in 18)8, he was one of the most prominent of those who accepted the new constitution from Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. In 1811, when Joseph's position was becoming insecure, Alava joined the national independent party, who were fighting in alliance with the English. The Spanish Cortes appointed him commissary at the English headquarters, and Wellington, who seems to have regarded him with great favour, made him one of his aides-de-camp. Before the close of the campaign he had risen to the rank of brigadier-general. On the restoration of Ferdinand, Alava was cast into prison, but the influence of his uncle Ethenard, the inquisitor, and of Wellington, secured his speedy release. He soon contrived to gain the favour of the king, who appointed him in 1815 ambassador to the Hague. Four years later he was recalled, owing, it is said, to the marked kindness he had shown to his banished fellow-countrymen. ALBACETE, one of the new provinces of Spain, was On the breaking out of the revolution of 1820 he was formed in 1833 out of districts taken from Murcia and chosen by the province of Alava to represent it in the New Castile. It is bounded on the N. by Cuença, on Cortes, where he became conspicuous in the party of the the E. by Valencia and Alicant, on the S. by Murcia, Exaltados, and in 1822 was made president. In the and on the W. by Ciudad Real and Jaen. The area is latter year he fought with the militia under Ballasteros 5971 square miles. The province is generally hilly, some and Murillo to maintain the authority of the Cortes of the peaks of the sierras rising to a height of 5000 feet; against the rebels. When the French invested Cadiz, but it contains rich plains and many fertile valleys. The Alava was commissioned by the Cortes to treat with the principal rivers are the Mundo in the southern and the Duc d'Angoulême, and the negotiations resulted in the Jucar in the northern part of the province; and there are restoration of Ferdinand, who pledged himself to a liberal numerous smaller streams. Some parts of the country have policy. No sooner had he regained power, however, than a bare appearance, being destitute of wood, but the neighhe ceased to hold himself bound by his promises, and Alava bourhood of Alcarez is covered with fruit trees, and prefound it necessary to retire first to Gibraltar and then to Eng-sents the aspect of a garden. Agriculture is in a tolerably land. On the death of Ferdinand, he returned to Spain, and, espousing the cause of Maria Christina against Don Carlos, was appointed ambassador to London in 1834, and to Paris in 1835. After the insurrection of La Granja, he refused to sign the constitution of 1812, declaring himself tired of taking new oaths, and was consequently obliged to retire to France, where he died at Barèges in 1843. ALAY (lit. a triumphant procession), a Turkish ceremony observed on the assembling of the forces at the outbreak of war. Its essential feature is the public display of the sacred standard of Mahomet, which may be seen only by Moslems and touched only by the emirs. On one occasion, when, owing to a long interval of peace, this rule had been forgotten, the Christians, who had witnessed the spectacle in large numbers, were cruelly massacred. The procession in which the standard is carried is headed by artisans bearing the implements of their respective trades. ALB, or ALBE, a vestment of white linen, hanging down to the feet, worn by priests at all the more solemn services of the church. It corresponds to the surplice of the English clergy, the difference being that the alb is closer in the sleeves, and bound at the waist by a girdle. In the ancient church it was customary for the neophytes who prosperous state, more advanced than in the centre of Castile, but less so than in the rich districts of Murcia and Valencia. Cereals, pulse, and fruits of all kinds are produced, as well as wine of fair quality, and excellent honey. Saffron also is produced in large quantities, and some attention is given to the keeping of silk-worns. Many of the inhabitants devote themselves to the rearing of cattle, sheep, and goats. The bulls of Albacete are in request for bull-fights; there is a good breed of mules, and the horses of the province have long mounted the Spanish cavalry. Manufactures are confined to the spinning of hemp, and the making of coarse cloths, porcelain, earthenware, and cutlery. There are several distilleries, and a considerable trade in wood. The district is rich in minerals, including silver, iron, copper, zinc, sulphur, gypsum, and coal; but, excepting stones and marble for building purposes, they are little wrought. In addition to agricultural produce, small quantities of zinc, iron, and sulphur are exported. There are numerous mineral springs, chiefly sulphureous, and hot as well as cold, at various places in the province. Among the chief towns are Albacete, Chinchilla, Bonillo, and Alcarez. The railway from Madrid to Valencia traverses the province, and at Chinchilla a line branches southward to Murcia. The state of education throughout the province is very low. In the town of Albacete, where it is best, little more than half the population can read; while at Yeste, where it is worst, the proportion is only 1 in 15. The graver crimes are of infrequent occurrence; but the inhabitants always wear arms, and offences against the person are numerous. Population in 1867, 221,444. esteem. His wife and children were very beautiful, and served him for models. But while thus studying from nature, his love of artificial refinement and conventional expression was so great, that even his best works are deficient in breadth and vigour, as well as in unaffected grace and natural feeling. The learning displayed in the composition of his pictures, and their minute elaboration ALBACETE, a town of Spain, capital of the above pro and exquisite finish, gave them great celebrity, and entitle vince, is situated about 140 miles S.E. of Madrid, and is a them to a distinctive place among the products of the station on the railway between Madrid and Valencia. It It Bolognese school. is surrounded by a fertile plain, and has considerable trade in saffron and in the agricultural products of the district. A great market, chiefly for the sale of cattle, is held annually in September, and extends over several days. The town is well built, and has several churches, two hospitals, and a normal school. At one time it had an extensive trade in cutlery, from which it received the name of the Sheffield of Spain. This manufacture has been very much reduced by the importation of cutlery from England and Germany, but Albacete is still famous for its daggers, which are held in high repute and much worn by the Spaniards. They are formidable weapons, of coarse manufacture, but with richly-ornamented handles, and frequently bear proverbial inscriptions suitable to their murderous appearance. Population, 15,150. ALBAN, ST, usually styled the protomartyr of Britain, was born at Verulamium, and flourished towards the end of the third century. In his youth he took a journey to Rome in company with Amphibalus, a monk of Caerleon, and served seven years as a soldier under the Emperor Diocletian. On his return home he settled at Verulamium, and, influenced by the example and instructions of Amphibalus, renounced the errors of paganism, in which he had been educated, and became a convert to the Christian religion. It is generally agreed that Alban suffered martyrdom during the great persecution in the reign of Diocletian; but authors differ as to the precise date. Bede, who gives a full account of the event, fixes it in 286; some refer it to the year 296; while Usher reckons it amongst the events of 303. Between 400 and 500 years after St Alban's death, Offa, king of the Mercians, built a large and stately monastery near Verulamium to his memory, and around it the present town of St Albans was gradually erected. ALBANI, or ALBANO, FRANCESCO (1578-1660), a celebrated Italian painter, was born at Bologna. His father was a silk merchant, and intended to bring up his son to the same occupation; but Albani was already, at the age of twelve, filled with so strong an inclination for painting, that on the death of his father he devoted himself entirely to art. His first master was Denis Calvart, with whom Guido Reni was at the same time a pupil. He was soon left by Calvart entirely to the care of Guido, and contracted with him a close friendship. He followed Guido to the school of the Caracci; but after this, owing to mutual rivalry, their friendship began gradually to cool. They kept up for a long time a keen competition, and their mutual emulation called forth some of their best productions. Notwithstanding this rivalry, they still spoke of each other with the highest esteem. Albani, after having greatly improved himself in the school of the Caracci, went to Rome, where he opened an academy and resided for many years. Here he painted, after the designs of Annibal Caracci, the whole of the frescoes in the chapel of St Diego in the church of San Giacomo degli Spagnuoli. His best frescoes are those on mythological subjects, of which there is a large number in the Verospi Palace, now Torlonia. On the death of his wife he returned to Bologna, where he married a second time, and resided till his death in the enjoyment of much domestic happiness and general "In point of original invention," says Lanzi, "Albani is superior to Domenichino, perhaps to any other of the school; and in his representation of female forms, according to Mengs, he has no equal. By some he is denominated the Anacreon of painting. Like that poet, great reputation; and as the one sings Venus and the Loves, and maids with his short odes, so Albani, from his small paintings, acquired and boys, so does the artist hold up to the eye the same delicate and graceful subjects. Nature, indeed, formed, the perusal of the poets inclined, and fortune encouraged his genius for this kind of painting; and possessing a consort and twelve children, all of surprising beauty, he was at the same time blest with the finest models for the pursuit of his studies. He had a villa most delightfully situated, which further presented him with a variety of objects enabling him to represent the beautiful rural views so familiar to his eye. A great number of his works are at Bologna. Among the most celebrated of his pictures are the "Four Seasons ;" "Diana and Venus," in the Florentine gallery; the "Toilet of Venus," in the Louvre; "Venus landing at Cythera," in the Ghigi palace at Rome, &c. Among the best of his sacred subjects are a "St Sebastian" and an "Assumption of the Virgin," both in the church of St Sebastian at Rome. He was among the first of the Italian painters to devote himself to the painting of cabinet pictures. ALBANIA, a country of considerable extent, which though frequently ruled by turbulent and nearly independ ent chiefs, ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish empire. The tract of land to which this name is now applied extends from 39° to 43° N. lat., and from 18° 24' to 21° 48′ E. long.; from the Gulf of Cattaro in the north to the Gulf of Arta in the south, and from the coast of the Adriatic Sea and Ionian Sea on the west to an irregular ill-defined line inland towards the east, roughly indicated in its northern part by the Tchar Dagh, the ancient Scardus, a part of the Hamus or Balkan range, and southwards by the Pindus chain, or rather the portions of it now called the mountains of Sagori, Metzovo, and Suli. Within these limits is included the ancient Epirus, corresponding to the southern part of the country now comprehended under the general name of Albania, and divided from Albania, properly so called, by the river Voyutza or Viosa, which enters the Adriatic a few miles north of Avlona. Albania, therefore, is bounded on the N. by Dalmatia, Montenegro (from which it is separated by the river Moroka), and Bosnia; on the E. by Servia and the Turkish province of Rum-ili, in which Macedonia, or the greater part of it, is included; and on the S. by Hellas or Northern Greece, which was the Turkish province of Livadia before Greece regained its independence, and from which it is separated by the river Garla or Suli. The superficial area of Albania is estimated at about 18,944 square miles, and it has a coast-line of about 280 miles from north to south, without reckoning indentations, &c. It nowhere extends more than 100 miles from the sea, and in the southern part not more than 30 miles. According to the most recent division of the Turkish empire into eyalets, sanjaks, and livas, Albania is comprehended in three eyalets, namely, Uskub or Uskup in the north; Roumelia, which also includes part of Macedonia, in the centre; and Yania, corresponding pretty nearly to the ancient Epirus, in the south. The chief towns of these eyalets are respectively Scutari, Monastir, It was the motives of pay and plunder, rather than compulsion, that brought these hardy soldiers into the Turkish ranks. In proportion as the Ottoman empire declined in vigour, its hold of Albania became less firm; and the vigorous and enterprising genius of Ali Pasha again converted this dependency into what might almost be called a separate kingdom. and Joannina, sometimes written Janina or Yanina; and | mountainous districts still preserved their independence. these divisions are therefore spoken of by some writers as the pashaliks of Scutari, Monastir, and Joannina. The divisions chiefly recognised by the Albanians themselves are those formed by the varieties of the native tribes. Colonel Leake, who is considered one of the best informed authorities on this head, divides them into the Ngege or Ghegides, whose principal towns are Dulcigno, Scutari, and Durazzo; the Toske or Toskides, who occupy Berat and Elbasan; the Liape, a poor and predatory race, who inhabit the mountains between the Toske and Delvino; and the Tsami, who inhabit the most southerly district, and whose principal towns are Suli and Paramithia. The country is mountainous, the interior being traversed by a range which forms a prolongation of the Dinaric Alps, and which is continued southwards in the Pindus range. These mountains, from which numerous spurs are thrown out to the east and west, run in a direction from north to south, parallel to the course of the Tchar Dagh. Along the southern part of the coast-line, and parallel with it, run the Khimara mountains, known to the ancients as the Acroceraunian range, terminating northwards in the bold headland of Cape Glossa. There are three lakes of great size in Albania Scutari in the north, Okhrida in the centre, and Joannina in the south. The rivers for the most part are short, and run, generally speaking, from east to west, or in a north-westerly direction. The Moroka and Zenta enter the lake of Scutari, which is connected with the sea by the Boyana, that flows into the Adriatic near Dulcigno. The White Drin, flowing in a southerly direction, and the Black Drin, running northwards from Lake Okhrida, form the head streams of the Drin. The principal streams in addition to these are the Skombia, Voyutza, Calamas, Arta, and Gurla (the ancient Acheron), with its tributary the Vuvó (the ancient Cocytus). The climate is generally healthy, though cold and bleak in the highlands; the warmer regions along the coast are also frequently visited by cold northerly winds. Albania includes not only the ancient Epirus, but also part of the ancient Macedonia, Illyria, and Chaonia. This country was in early times, as now, distinguished by the rude valour of its inhabitants. Its remote situation, and the want of union among its tribes, generally prevented it from acting any conspicuous part in Grecian politics. The only remarkable exception occurs in the reign of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus (296-272 B.C.), who was justly ranked among the greatest captains of antiquity. After his death the country was again split into a number of petty states, which were unable to resist the united strength of Macedon; and to that kingdom Epirus continued subject till both were alike subdued by the Roman arms (167 B.C.) It was during the time of the Greek empire that the name of Albania was first given to this district. During the decline of the empire the Albanians gradually rose to distinction, and at last to independence. Their valour enabled them to maintain their ground against the Bulgarians, who had occupied all the neighbouring districts of Greece. Nor were they less successful against the Turks, a more formidable enemy. Under the command of the celebrated George Castriot, called by the Turks Scanderbeg, they baffled all the efforts of Mahomet II., the conqueror of Constantinople. That powerful monarch entered Albania only to experience a succession of defeats, and was at length compelled to acknowledge its independence by a formal treaty. On the death of Scanderbeg, the Turks redoubled their efforts against Albania, which was at length reduced to a state of nominal subjection. The siege of Scutari, in 1478, formed the termination of this memorable struggle. The subjection, however, was always the imperfect; revolts were frequent, and the inhabitants of In the grand insurrection of Greece (1821-1829), the Albanians, accustomed to view with disdain the Ottoman yoke, showed a considerable disposition to make common cause with the Greeks, and their co-operation would have almost ensured success. But the Greeks, imprudently and unhappily, could not divest themselves of the feelings of enmity cherished during the long series of wars which Ali had waged against them. At the siege of Tripolizza (October 5, 1821) overtures were made to them by a corps of 3000 Albanians, who formed part of the garrison; but the Greeks, having succeeded in entering the place, began a dreadful and indiscriminate massacre, in which the Albanians were not spared. At the siege of Arta, although the capture was much facilitated by the coming over of a corps of Albanians, the Greeks treated them extremely ill. The Albanian nation was thus forcibly thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which it has since continued nominally subject. The allegiance of the Albanians, however, to Turkey rests on a very precarious basis even at the present day, and, it will be remembered, in the Crimean war many Albanian chiefs fought under the Russian flag against the combined forces of England, France, and Turkey. The inhabitants of Albania are estimated at 1,200,000, of whom a considerable proportion are Turks and Greeks; but the basis of the population consists of the original race, called Arnauts. About half of the entire population are Mahometans; of the other moiety, about 520,000 belong to the Greek Church, and the remainder to the Latin Church. The conversion of those who profess Mahometanism has been, however, very imperfect, and chiefly induced by political motives. In every family the males usually go to the mosque, the females to church; and some members of a family are seen in the most amicable manner eating from the same table, and even from the same plate, meats forbidden to the others. With the Turks, accordingly, infidel and Albanian are terms nearly synonymous. The native Albanian is of middle stature; his face is oval, with high cheek-bones; his neck long; his chest full and broad. His air is erect and majestic to a degree which never fails to strike the traveller. He holds in utter contempt that dissimulation which is characteristic of the Greek, and, unlike the Turk, he is gay, lively, and active. Averse, however, to regular industry, his whole delight is in arms and plunder. He goes constantly armed; and there are few Albanians who have not, in the prime of their life, belonged to some of the numerous bands of robbers who infest the mountains of their native country, of Thessaly, and of Macedonia. This occupation carries with it no disgrace: it is common for the Albanian to mention circumstances which occurred "when he was a robber." In proportion as the trade of robbing becomes overstocked, part of those engaged in it seek employment in the service of the sultan and the different pashas throughout the Turkish empire, by all of whom the Alba nians are regarded as the most valuable of their troops. This fierce and haughty race display a greater degree of contempt for the female sex than is usual even among the most barbarous nations. The females are literally regarded as inferior animals, and treated accordingly; but in the country districts they are not confined or veiled, as is customary in Mahometan countries. |