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part of a mixed race, combining the finer personal traits of | the Berbers with the characteristics of the negro. The king or sultan of Air occupies a very precarious position, being to a great extent dependent on the chiefs of the Tawarek tribes inhabiting a vast tract of the Sahara to the north-west, who are continually at war among themselves. A large part of the revenue of the king is derived from tribute exacted from the salt caravan. His authority does not seem to be great in the outlying parts of his dominions. The chief town of Air is AGADES (q.v.) (See Dr Barth's Travels in Central Africa, vol. i.)

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AIRAY, HENRY, D.D. This celebrated Puritan president of Queen's College, Oxford, was born at Kentmere, near Windermere, but no record remains of the date of either birth or baptism. Anthony à Wood names Westmoreland as his birthplace. In the well-known Life of Bernard Gilpin it is told that when he was making preparations for martyrdom, he "received the account with great composure; and immediately after called up William Airay, a favourite domestic, who had long served him as his almoner and steward." From the great kindness shown to our Airay by Gilpin, and from the vicinity of Kentmere to the Rectory, it does not appear to be hazarding too much to assume that this William Airay was his father, and that the family tradition is right in assigning Kentmere, not Barton or Wilford, as his birthplace. The truly apostolic man's bounty showed itself in sending Henry and a (probable) brother Ewan or Evan to his own endowed school, where they were fully educated "in grammatical learning," and were in attendance at Oxford when Gilpin lay a-dying. From the Athena we glean the details of Airay's college attendance. "sent," says Wood, "to St Edmund's Hall in 1579, aged nineteen or thereabouts." "Soon after," he continues, our author, Airay, was translated to Queen's College, where he became pauper puer serviens; that is, a poor serving child that waits on the fellows in the common hall at meals, and in their chambers, and do other servile work about the college." His transference to Queen's College is explained by its having been Gilpin's own college, and by his Westmoreland origin giving him a claim on Eaglesfield's foundation. He proceeded B.A. on June 19, 1583. On June 15, 1586, he passed M.A.; B.D. in 1594; and D.D. on June 17, 1600-all in Queen's College. "About the time he was master" (1586), "he entered holy orders, and became a frequent and zealous preacher in the university." His Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (1618), reprinted 1864, is a specimen of his preaching before his college, and of his fiery denunciation of Popery, and his fearless enunciation of that Calvinism which Oxford, in common with all England, prized then. In 1598 he was chosen provost of his college, and in 1606 was vice-chancellor of the university. In the discharge of his vice-chancellor's duties, he came into conflict with Laud, who even thus early was betraying his Romish tendencies. He was also rector of Otmore (or Otmoor), near Oxford, a living which involved him in a trying litigation, whereof present incumbents reap the benefit. He died on 6th October 1616. His character as a man, preacher, divine, and as an important ruler in the university, will be found portrayed in the Epistle by Potter, prefixed to the Commentary. He must have been a fine specimen of the more cultured Puritans possessed of a robust common-sense in admirable contrast with some of his contemporaries. (Lectures on the whole Epistle of Paul to the Philippians, 1618, 1864; Wood's Athena, by Bliss, ii. 177, 178, &c.; Laud's Works; Wills (Surtees Society.) (A. B. G.)

AIRDRIE, a parliamentary and municipal burgh and market-town of Scotland, in the parish of New Monkland,

Lanarkshire, 11 miles E. of Glasgow and 32 W. of Edinburgh. The high road between these cities passes through Airdrie, forming its principal street, from which others diverge at right angles. It is well built, paved, and lighted with gas, but it contains little that is beautiful or attractive. It possesses a fine town-hall and a handsome edifice erected as the county buildings, as well as two places of worship belonging to the Church of Scotland, three to the Free Church, two to the United Presbyterians, and one each to the Reformed Presbyterians, the Congregationalists, the Baptists, the Wesleyan Methodists, and the Roman Catholics; five branch banks, with excellent places of business constructed or in course of construction; a mechanies' institute, and several schools. The extensive coal and iron mines in the vicinity give employment to a large part of the population of Airdrie, and have been the means of raising it, since the commencement of the century, from the insignificance of a village to its present prosperity. In the town itself there are manufactories of cotton goods and iron wares, besides foundries, engineering shops, saw-mills, and other branches of industry. A branch of the North British Railway from Glasgow, passing through Airdrie to Edinburgh, connects it by a direct line with both cities. It is also connected with Glasgow by the Monkland Canal, which comes within a mile of the town. By the Reform Act of 1832 Airdrie was created a parliamentary burgh, uniting with Falkirk, Hamilton, Lanark, and Linlithgow in sending one member to parliament. Its municipal corporation, which dates from 1821, consists of twelve councillors, including a provost and three bailies. There are weekly courts held by the magistrates, and courts are held twice a week by the sheriff-substitute and the justices of the peace respectively. The market-day is Tuesday, but the market is of little importance. By the census of 1871 the population of Airdrie was 13,488, the number of inhabited houses 1167, and the parliamentary constituency 1702, increased in 1873 to 1932. The annual value of real property in the burgh, not including railways, is £26,145; and the corporation revenue for 1873, £3401.

AIRE, an English river which rises in the West Riding of Yorkshire and pursues a south-easterly course through the populous "clothing district" of which Leeds is the capital. At Castleford, below Leeds, it receives a small tributary, the Calder, and it joins the Ouse shortly before that river's expansion into the estuary of the Humber above Hull. It is navigable to Leeds for small craft.

AIRE, a fortified town of France, on the river Lys, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 10 miles S.E. of St Ömer. Although its situation is low and marshy, the town is neat and well built. It possesses extensive barracks; and the Church of St Paul is a handsome Gothic structure. Its manufactures consist of hats, cotton and woollen goods, hardware, yarn, soap, and oil. Population, 8803.

AIRE, a town in the south of France, in the department of Landes, on the left bank of the Adour, 14 miles S.S.E. of St Sever. At one time it was the capital of the Visigoths, and since the fifth century it has been the seat of a bishopric. It has a college and cathedral; and there are manufactories of leather and hats. Population, 5144.

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AISLE, sometimes written ISLE, YLE, and ALLEY (Lat. and Ital. Ala, a wing; Fr. Aile, Bas côté; Ger. Seitenschiff, Seitenchor), in its primary sense, the wing of a house, but generally used to describe the alleys or passages at the sides of the naves and choirs of churches. In reckoning their number, the nave is usually counted. nave with an aisle on each side is generally called a threeaisled church; if with two aisles on each side, a fiveaisled church. In England there are many churches with one side-aisle only; but there is only one cathedral with five aisles, that at Chichester. There are, however, very

many such on the Continent, the most celebrated of which are at Milan and Amiens. Others have three aisles on each side, or seven aisles in all, as the cathedrals at Antwerp and Paris. The most extraordinary, however, is that at Cordova, originally erected for a mosque. It was first built with a nave and five aisles on each side, and eight others afterwards were added, making nineteen aisles in all. Old English writers frequently call the transepts "the cross isle, or yle," and the nave the "middle ile."

AISNE, a frontier department in the north-east of France, bounded on the N. by the department of Nord and the kingdom of Belgium, on the E. by the department of Ardennes, on the S. E. by that of Marne, on the S. by that of Seine-et-Marne, and on the W. by those of Oise and Somme; extending at the widest points 75 miles from N. to S., and 53 from E. to W., with an area of 2838 square miles. The surface of the department consists of fine undulating plains, diversified in the north by hilly ground which forms a part of the mountain system of the Ardennes. The chief rivers are the Somme, the Escaut, and the Sambre in the north; the Oise, traversing the north-west, with its tributaries the Serre and the Aisne, the latter of which joins it beyond the limits of the department; and the Marne and the Ourcq in the south. The soil of Aisne is, as a whole, fertile, and in some parts very rich, yielding wheat, barley, rye, oats, hops, flax, fruit, beetroot, and potatoes; there is good pasturage, and much attention is paid to the rearing of cattle, sheep, and horses. Wine is produced, but, except in the valley of the Marne, its quality is inferior. Large tracts of the department are under wood, the chief forests being those of Nouvion and St Michel in the north, Coucy and St Gobain in the centre, and Villers-Cotterets in the south. There are no minerals of importance in the department, but good building-stone and slates of a fair quality are found. Aisne is an important manufacturing department; its chief industrial products being shawls and muslin-as well as other cotton, linen, and woollen goods-glass, including the famous mirrors of St Gobain, iron wares, beetroot sugar, leather, and pottery. It has a good trade, which is much facilitated by railroads (the most important being those between Paris and Strasbourg, and Paris and Mons), canals, and the navigable portions of the rivers. Aisne, which is composed of parts of the ancient provinces of Picardy and the Isle of France, is divided into five arrondissements-St Quentin and Vervins in the north, Laon in the centre, and Soissons and Chateau Thierry in the south. It contains in all 37 cantons and 837 communes. Laon is the capital, and Soissons the seat of the bishop. The other towns of importance are Chauny, St Quentin, Vervins, Hirson, Suise, Villers-Cotterets, and Chateau Thierry. Population in 1872, 552,439, of whom 183,104 could neither read nor write, and 28,651 could read, but could not write.

AITON, WILLIAM (1731-1793), an eminent botanist and gardener, was born near Hamilton in Scotland. Having been regularly trained to the profession of a gardener, he travelled to England in the year 1754, where he became assistant to Philip Miller, then superintendent of the physic garden at Chelsea. In 1759 he was appointed director of the newly-established botanical garden at Kew, in which office he continued till his death. The garden at Kew, under the auspices of King George III., was destined to be the grand repository of all the vegetable riches which could be accumulated by regal munificence, front researches through every quarter of the globe. Aiton's care and skill in cultivation, and intelligence in arrangement, gained for him high reputation among the lovers of the science, and the particular esteem of his royal patrons. Under his superintendence many improvements took place in the plan and edifices of Kew gardens, which

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rendered them the principal scene of botanical culture in the kingdom. In 1783 his merit was rewarded with the lucrative office of manager of the pleasure and kitchen gardens of Kew, which he was allowed to hold along with the botanical direction. In 1789 he published his Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants cultivated in the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew, in 3 vols. 8vo, with 13 platesa work which had been the labour of many years. Hortus, in which the Linnæan system of arrangement, with some modification, was adopted, was very favourably received by students of science, and a second edition was issued (1810-3) by W. T. Aiton, his eldest son and successor. He was for many years honoured with the friendship of Sir Joseph Banks, the president of the Royal Society, and was aided by the Swedish naturalists, Solander and Dryander, in the preparation of his Hortus Kewensis.

AITZEMA, LEON VAN, Dutch historian and statesman, was born at Doccum, in Friesland, on the 19th November 1600, and died at the Hague on the 23d February 1669. In his youth he published a volume of Latin poems under the title of Poemata Juvenilia. He subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to political life, and held for a lengthened period the position of resident at the Hague for the towns of the Hanseatic League. His most important work was the Historie oft Verhaal van Saäken van Staet in Oorlogh (14 vols 4to, 1657-71), embracing the period from 1621 to 1668. It contains a large number of state documents, and is an invaluable authority on one of the most eventful periods of Dutch history.

AIX, an ancient city of France, the chief town of the arrondissement of the same name, in the department of the Bouches-du-Rhone. It was the Aqua Sextio of the Romans, and between this and Arelate (Arles) is the field on which Marius gained his great victory over the Teutons. Under the counts of Provence, Aix became celebrated as a seat of learning; and it still retains many relics of its former splendour, and is distinguished by the number and excellence of its literary institutions. It has a library of 100,000 volumes, an academy of law, science, and theology, a museum, and a chamber of commerce. The cathedral-the baptistry of which is said to have been constructed from the remains of a Roman temple-the "Palais," the town-hall, and the clock-tower, are fine specimens of ancient architecture. There are numerous public fountains, on one of which is sculptured a figure of King Réné by David. The hot springs, from which the city derives its name, are not now in much repute. Aix is the seat of a court of justice and an archbishopric. The chief manufactures are cotton, silk, thread, and hardware; and olives and almonds are cultivated on the surrounding hills. There is considerable commerce in corn, wine, and oil. The naturalists Adanson and Tournefort, and the painter Vanloo, were born at Aix. Population (1872), 29,020.

AIX, or AIX-LES-BAINS, a town of France, in the department of Savoie, near Lake Bourget, 8 miles north of Chambéry. It was a celebrated bathing-place in the time. of the Romans, and possesses numerous ancient remains. The hot springs, which are of sulphureous quality, and have a temperature of from 109° to 113° Fahr., are still much frequented, attracting annually above 2000 visitors. They are used for drinking as well as for bathing purposes. Population, 4430.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, the German AACHEN, the capital of a district of the same name in Rhenish Prussia, situated near the Wurm, a tributary of the Meuse, in a pleasant and fertile valley about 40 miles west of Cologne, with which it is connected by railway. It is well built, and is enclosed by ramparts that have been converted into promenades, and its appearance is rather that of a prosperous modern town than of an ancient city full of historical

associations. Its town-house, built in 1353 on the ruins of Charlemagne's palace, contains the magnificent coronation hall of the German emperors, 162 feet long by 60 feet wide. Near the town-house are two ancient towers, one of which, called the Granusthurm, is sometimes said to be of Roman origin; and a fountain, with a statue of Charlemagne, which was erected in 1620. The cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle consists of two parts, distinct both as to the time of their erection and their style of architecture. The older portion may be said to date either from 796 A.D., when it was erected by Charlemagne as the palace chapel, or from 983, when it was rebuilt on the old model by Otho III., after having been almost entirely destroyed by the Normans. It consists of an octagon, planned after that of St Vitale at Ravenna, surrounded by a sixteensided gallery, and terminating in a cupola. It contains the tomb of Charlemagne, which was opened in the year 1000, when the body of the emperor was found seated on a marble throne which was afterwards used in the imperial coronation ceremonies. The Gothic choir, which forms the more modern portion of the cathedral, was added during the latter half of the 14th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. The cathedral possesses many relics, the most sacred of which are exhibited only once every seven years, when they attract large crowds of worshippers. Besides these buildings, almost the only other of any antiquity is the corn exchange, probably of the 12th century. Of modern edifices, Aix-la-Chapelle possesses a theatre, a public library, a gymnasium, and several churches and hospitals. The chief manufactures of Aix-la-Chapelle are woollen cloths, stockings, shawls, silks, leather, glass, needles, pins, machines, general ironmongery, carriages, beer, brandy, tobacco, and chemicals. There is a good trade in these articles, not only with Germany and other continental countries, but also, in the case of cloth especially, with the United States of America. The hot sulphur springs of Aix-la-Chapelle are another important source of revenue to the inhabitants. These springs were known to the Romans, and have long been celebrated for the cure of rheumatism and gout. There are six in all, of which the Kaiserquelle is the chief, with a temperature reaching as high as 136 Fahr. There are also two cold chalybeate springs. Aix-la-Chapelle is the Aquisgranum, or Civitas Aquensis, of the Romans. Charlemagne, who perhaps was born and certainly died in the town, made it the second city of his empire and the capital of his dominions north of the Alps. He conferred numerous privileges upon its citizens, exempting them from military service and from all taxes, even when they were living in other parts of the empire. From 813 to 1531 the emperors of Germany were crowned at Aix-laChapelle, which during that period became one of the most important free imperial cities, although it was ravaged by the Normans in 851, and again in 882. By the removal of the coronations to Frankfort, Aix-la-Chapelle lost its leading position in Germany, and its internal prosperity was much injured by a disastrous fire in 1656. During the revolution it for a time belonged to France, but in 1815 it was ceded to Prussia, and has now become one of the chief seats of commerce in that kingdom. Population of Aix-laChapelle (1871), 74,238.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, Congresses and Treaties of. The first congress of Aix-la-Chapelle concerned the succession of Maria Theresa to the empire. It was held in 1748, and resulted in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, signed in the same year, by which Maria Theresa was left in possession of most of her hereditary dominions, the chief exception being Silesia, which was ceded to Prussia. The second congress, held in 1818, resulted in the convention of Aixla-Chapelle. The object of this congress was the regulation of the affairs of Europe, especially of France, after the war.

A treaty of peace between France and Spain was also signed in this city in 1668, whereby Louis XIV. gave up his claim to the Spanish Netherlands, but was left in possession of much that he had already conquered.

AJACCIO, the chief town of Corsica, one of the departments of France. It is a seaport, situated on the west coast of the island, in 41° 54′ N. lat., and 8° 44′ E. long. The harbour is commodious, and sheltered on all sides save the south-west. The town is well built, and its principal buildings are the cathedral, the town-house, and the citadel. It is the seat of a bishop and a court of justice, and has a commercial college, a school of hydrography, a large library, and a botanic garden. Wine, fruits, and olive oil are the chief articles of trade; and anchovy and coral fisheries are extensively prosecuted along the coast. Ajaccio is celebrated as the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. The house where he was born (15th August 1769) is still standing in good preservation. A marble statue was erected to his honour in 1850, and the people still retain strong Bonapartist sympathies. Population (1872), 16,545.

AJAN (the ancient Azania), a tract which forms the eastern horn of Africa, with a coast-line of about 10° of latitude, from Cape Gardafui nearly to the equator. It extends inland to the territory of the Gallas, but its limits cannot be strictly defined, as this part of Africa has been little explored. The coast towards the south is low and sandy, but northward, near Cape D'Orfui, it becomes high and mountainous, with some fertile valleys interspersed. Cape Gardafui, the most eastern point of Africa, is a bold promontory backed by lofty hills. There are no considerable rivers in Ajan, and the land for the most part is barren. The inhabitants, a tribe of the Somali, carry on a trade with the Arabs in ivory and gum, and the country possesses an excellent breed of horses.

AJAX (Alas), the son of Telamon. In Greek legend Ajax represents throughout only physical qualities, like Hercules, with whom, indeed, a likeness must have been recognised, or there would have been no sufficient basis for the belief that the child Ajax was born at the prayer of Hercules in behalf of his friend Telamon (the name Alas or Ati-as with digamma-being an allusion to the eagle, ateros, which appeared to announce the success of the prayer); and again, that Hercules was present at the birth of the infant, and by wrapping it in his lion's skin made it invulnerable, except in the armpit. In respect of being open to a wound in only one small spot Ajax resembles Achilles, with whom in the usual genealogy he claims to be related as cousin. But of this relationship there is no evidence in the Iliad, where Ajax appears of colossal frame (cλúptos), in himself a tower of strength (úpyos 'Aɣauŵv), and, as the simile implies, prepared for defence, not to lead assaults, unmoved by the shafts of enemies as is an ass in a corn-field by the pelting of boys (Iliad, xi. 556–566), while Achilles is no less clearly drawn as sensitive to finer passions and tastes, if equally bold in war. Unwarranted as it was by the Iliad, the identification of Ajax with the family of Eacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the Athenians, and that not until Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion Solon inserted a line in the Iliad (ii. 557) for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island. Ajax then became an Attic hero, his name being given to one of the tribes. In this way his deeds came to be a favourite subject of the Attic drama, though they are not always represented in a creditable manner-as, for example, when, contrary to his steady character in the Iliad of being respectful to the gods, he is charged with insult to Athena, to account for her having influenced the decision against him in his competition with Ulysses for the armour of Achilles. It was Athena, also, who made him insane then, and led him to take his own life. From his blood

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AJAX OILEUS, or the LESSER AJAX, was a son of the King of Locri, whose subjects he led before Troy, contributing a contingent of forty ships. In boldness he was in the first rank among the Greeks there, equal to make a stand against Hector, and swift of foot next to Achilles. But, compared with the other leaders, he is impatient and overbearing. Like the Telamonian Ajax, he appears as an enemy of Ulysses, and as the victim of Athena's vengeance. It was due to her influence that he, known for his speed, lost the race with Ulysses at the games in honour of Patroclus (Iliad, xxiii. 754-784); and again it was through her that on his return homeward his ship was wrecked upon the mythical Gyræan rock (Odyssey, iv. 499). As it stands in later story, he had drawn down Athena's anger by his assault upon Cassandra at the image of the goddess. Ulysses charged him with this offence, and demanded that he should be stoned. But, according to another version of the legend, he had only carried her off to his tent without any harm, when Agamemnon took her from him, and spread a report that Athena would destroy the whole army unless Ajax were slain; upon which, thinking of the unjust verdict given against his namesake, he went to sea in a frail vessel and perished. The news was received in the camp with grief, a funeral pile was erected on the ship which had conveyed him to Troy, sacrifice was offered, and when the evening wind came on, the burning ship was cut adrift. (A. S. M.)

AJEHO, or A-SHE-HOн, also called ALCHUKU, a considerable and rapidly increasing city of Manchuria, 30 miles south of the river Soongari, and about 120 north of Kirin. It is advantageously situated on the slopes of a gentle descent leading to the river. The country around is very fertile, producing in abundance various kinds of grain, besides pulse and opium. The population of the district consists entirely of Chinese immigrants, who are engaged in the reclamation and cultivation of the soil, which is given to them at a nominal price. A large trade is done in the town; and although the shops are of mean appearance, quantities of porcelain and other ornamental articles exposed for sale indicate its growing wealth. The population is about 40,000, and includes a considerable number of Mahometans.

AJMÍR, a district and town of British India, in Rájpu

táná. The DISTRICT lies between 25° 43′ and 26° 42' N. lat., and 74° 22′ and 75° 33′ E. long., measuring 80 miles in length from north to south, by 50 miles in breadth, and comprising an area of 2057 square miles. It is bounded on the E. by the states of Krishnagar and Jaipur, on the S. by Mewár, on the W. by the British district of Mairwárá, and on the N.W. by the state of Jodhpur. The population in 1865 was returned at 426,268; of whom 363,539, or 85 per cent., were Hindus, and the remainder chiefly Mahometans. The eastern portion of the district is generally flat, broken only by gentle undulations, but the north and north-western parts are intersected by the great ARAVALLI range (q.v.) Many of the valleys in this region are mere sandy deserts, with an occasional oasis of cultivation, but there are also some very fertile tracts; among these is the plain on which lies the town of Ajmír. This valley, however, is not only fortunate in possessing a noble artificial lake, but is protected by the massive walls of the Nág-páthar range or Serpent rock, which forms a barrier against the sand. The only hills in the district are the Aravalli range and its offshoots. Ajmír is almost totally devoid of rivers, the Banás being the only stream |

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which can be dignified with that name, and it only touches the south-eastern boundary of the district so as to irrigate the Parganá of Samur. Four small streams-the Ságarmatí, Saraswatí, Kharí, and Daí-also intersect the district. In the dry weather they are little more than brooks. The Ságar-matí and Saraswati unite at Gobindgarh, the united waters flowing on under the name of the Luní (or salt water) river. There are two first-class roads in Ajmír, viz., one from Ajmír city to Gangwana, and thence through the Krishnagarh and Jaipur states to Agra; and another from the city to the cantonment station of Nasírábád, a distance of 14 miles. There is also a second-class road from Ajmír to Nayá Nagar, a distance of 36 miles, besides sixteen third-class tracks connecting the principal towns and villages with the city. The principal products of the district are wheat, barley, rice, sugar-cane, peas, bajrá, maize, til (oil-seed), tobacco, and cotton. With the exception of woollen blankets, turbans, &c., manufactures can be scarcely said to exist in Ajmír. Salt is made in a rude method at Rámsur, from the saline exudations of the soil, to the extent of 3000 cwt. per annum. After supplying local wants, the surplus is exported towards Málwa and Ságar. The principal trade is in wool, cotton, opium, printed cloths, and tobacco. A large quantity of cotton is exported to Nayá Nagar, in Mairwárá district, whence it finds its way into the Bombay market. Oil is also a profitable article of trade. The domestic animals are sheep, horses, bullocks, camels, and goats. Cattle, and especially bullocks, are much valued, but are very scarce, owing partly to the want of sufficient pasturage and partly to frequent droughts. When these occur, the cattle are sent away to the neighbouring states, where better pasture can be procured, and very few find their way back. The imperial revenue obtained from the district in 1867 amounted to £61,791, 8s., exclusive of local funds raised by a road, tank, and postal cess.

The tenures of the agricultural village communities in Ajmír are of a very simple and uniform kind. They all belong to the type known as "imperfect patídárí," by which the better descriptions of land are held in severalty by each member of the proprietary body. Each member is responsible for the amount of revenue allotted on his holding; but in event of the default of any shareholder, the whole community is collectively liable for the total sum. The inferior and waste lands remain the property of the whole village, and the income derived from them is credited to the common account. The cultivators are nearly all proprietors of the land they till. A large portion of Ajmír district is parcelled out into estates, varying in size from a single village to a large parganá (or fiscal division), These estates are held by Rajput chiefs, some of whom descend force or to the favour of the reigning power. They have all been from the original ruling families, while others owe their position to confirmed in their estates by the British on payment of a fixed annual quit rent. Three towns are returned as containing a population of upwards of 5000 inhabitants in 1867-viz., Ajmír city (the capital and the only municipality in the district), population cantonment at Nasírábád, the garrison of which in 1867 consisted 34,763; Kekrí, 6357; and Pisangun, 5055. There is also a military of a battery of European artillery, a European infantry regiment, a squadron of native cavalry, and a regiment of native infantry. In 1867 there were eighteen government schools in the district, attended by 647 pupils, and a government college at Ajmir city attended by 320 students. Besides these there were three mission schools for boys and one for girls in Ajmír city, and eight others in its neigh bourhood. The average attendance at the mission schools amounted to 347.

AJмÍR CITY, the capital of Ajmír district, is situated in a picturesque and fertile valley surrounded by mountains, in 26° 29′ N. lat. and 74° 43′ E. long. The town is partly built on the lower slope of the Tárágarh hill, and is surrounded by a stone wall with five handsome gates. To the north of the city is a large artificial lake called the Anaságar, whence the water supply of the place is derived The town is clean, and possesses several handsome streets, the dwellings of the better classes being large and well built. The population in 1867 numbered 34,763, about I. - 55

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ous on account of the numerous coral reefs, and the sudden squalls which sweep down from the adjacent mountains, many of which rise perpendicularly to a height of 2000 feet. The only well-sheltered harbour is that called the Golden Port, situated on its western shore about 33 miles from the entrance, and 29 miles E. of Mount Sinai. About 2 miles from the head of the gulf is the village of AKABAH, with a fortified castle, garrisoned by a few soldiers for the protection of the Moslem pilgrims on their way to Mecca. In the vicinity of the village there are extensive date groves; and there is abundance of good water, fruit, and vegetables. Akabah, though now of small importance, is not devoid of historical interest. It is supposed to occupy the site of the Elath of Scripture, which in remote ages carried on an extensive commerce; and some ruins in the sea a short distance southward are surmised to be the remains of Eziongeber.

two-thirds being Hindus, and the remainder Mahometans. | rendered somewhat difficult; and its navigation is dangerThe city trade chiefly consists of salt and opium. former is imported in large quantities from the Sambar lake and Ramsur. Oilmaking is also a profitable branch of trade. Cotton cloths are manufactured to some extent, for the dyeing of which the city has attained a high reputation. A municipal income of about £2000 a-year is derived from octroi duties levied on articles consumed in the town. Out of this the police and conservancy arrangements are paid, the balance being spent on roads and in the support of charitable institutions. The Ajmír college, affiliated to the Calcutta university, had 320 pupils in 1867. The college buildings being inadequate to this number of pupils, the foundation-stone of a new structure was laid on the 17th February 1868. The agent to the governor-general for Rájputáná resides at Ajmír, which is also the headquarters of the commissioner of the Ajmír and Mairwárá division. It is likewise a station of a Scotch Presbyterian mission.

The chief object of interest is the dargá, or tomb of a famous Mahometan saint named Mayud-ud-dín. It is situated at the foot of the Tárágarh mountain, and consists of a block of white marble buildings, without much pretension to architectural beauty. To this place the emperor Akbar, with his empress, performed a pilgrimage on foot from Agra, in accordance with the terms of a vow he had made when praying for a son. The large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still extant. An ancient Jain temple, now converted into a Mahometan mosque, is situated on the lower slope of the Tárágarh hill. With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the execution of the ornaments. The summit of Tárágarh mountain, overhanging Ajmír, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walls are 2 miles in circumference, and the fort can only be approached by steep and very roughly-paved planes, commanded by the fort and the outworks, and by the hill to the west. On coming into the hands of the English, the fort was dismantled by order of Lord William Bentinck, and is now converted into a sanitarium for the troops at Nasírábád. Ajmir was founded about the year 145 A.D. by Ají, a Chohán, who established the dynasty which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of fortune) while the repeated waves of Mahometan invasion swept over India, until it eventually became an appanage of the crown of Dehli in 1193. Its internal government, however, was handed over to its ancient rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Dehli till 1365, when it was captured by the ruler of Mewár. In 1509 the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of Mewár and Márwár, and was ultimately conquered in 1532 by the latter prince, who in his turn in 1559 had to give way before the emperor Akbar. It continued in the hands of the Mughuls, with occasional revolts, till 1770, when it was ceded to the Marhattás, from which time up to 1818 the unhappy district was the scene of a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewár and Márwár rájás, from whom it was as often retaken by the Marhattás. In 1818 the latter ceded it to the British in return for a payment of Since then the country has enjoyed unbroken peace and a stable government.

50,000 rupees.

AJURUOCA, a town of Brazil, in the province of Minas Geraes, 117 miles N. of Rio de Janeiro. It is situated on the Ajuruoca river, which is here crossed by a bridge. Gold was once found in the vicinity, but the soil has been long exhausted of the precious metals; and the people are chiefly engaged in agriculture, and in rearing animals for the markets of Rio. The land is fertile, and produces millet, mandioca, coffee, sugar-cane, and tobacco. The population of the town and district is 12,000.

AKABAH, THE GULF OF, the Sinus Elanites of antiquity, is the eastmost of the two divisions into which the Red Sea bifurcates near its northern extremity. It penetrates into Arabia Petræa in a N.N.E. direction, from 28° to 29° 32′ N. lat., a distance of 100 miles, and its breadth varies from 12 to 17 miles. The entrance is contracted by Tiran and other islands, so that the passage is

AKBAR, AKHBAR, or AKBER, JELLALADIN MOHAMMED, one of the greatest and wisest of the Moghul emperors, was born at Amerkote in Sindh on the 14th October 1542, his father, Humayun, having been driven from the throne a short time before by the usurper Sher Khan. After more than twelve years' exile, Humayun regained his sovereignty, which, however, he had held only for a few months when he died. Akbar succeeded his father in 1556 under the regency of Bahram Khan, a Turkoman noble, whose energy in repelling pretenders to the throne, and severity in maintaining the discipline of the army, tended greatly to the consolidation of the newly-recovered empire. Bahram, however, was naturally despotic and cruel; and when order was somewhat restored, Akbar found it necessary to take the reins of government into his own hands, which he did by a proclamation issued in March 1560. The discarded regent lived for some time in rebellion, endeavouring to establish an independent principality in Malwah, but at last he was forced to cast himself on Akbar's mercy. The emperor not only freely pardoned him, but magnanimously offered him the choice of a high place in the army or a suitable escort for a pilgrimage to Mecca, and Bahram preferred the latter alternative. When Akbar ascended the throne, only a small portion of what had formerly been comprised within the Moghul empire owned his authority, and he devoted himself with great determination and marvellous success to the recovery of the revolted provinces. Over each of these, as it was restored, he placed a governor, whom he superintended with great vigilance and wisdom. He tried by every means to develop and encourage commerce; he had the land accurately measured for the purpose of rightly adjusting taxation; he gave the strictest instructions to prevent extortion on the part of the tax-gatherers, and in many other respects displayed an enlightened and equitable policy. Thus it happened that, in the fortieth year of Akbar's reign the empire had more than regained all that it had lost, the recovered provinces being reduced, not to subjection only as before, but to a great degree of peace, order, and contentment. Akbar's method of dealing with what must always be the chief difficulty of one who has to rule widely diverse races, affords perhaps the crowning evidence of his wisdom and moderation. In religion he was at first a Mussulman, but the intolerant exclusiveness of that creed was quite foreign to his character. Scepticism as to the divine origin of the Koran led him to seek the true religion in an eclectic system. He accordingly set himself to obtain information about other religions, sent to Goa, requesting that the Portuguese missionaries there would visit him, and listened to them with intelligent attention when they came. As the result of these inquiries, he adopted the creed of pure deism and a ritual based upon the system of Zoroaster. The religion thus founded,

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