sciences require Passing from Natural and Physical Science to Literature, History, and Philosophy, it It may be well, perhaps, to state at the outset the position taken by the Encyclopædia tures and hypotheses. The air is full of novel and extreme opinions, arising often from a hasty or one-sided interpretation of the newer aspects and results of modern inquiry. The higher problems of philosophy and religion, too, are being investigated afresh from opposite sides in a thoroughly earnest spirit, as well as with a directness and intellectual power, which is certainly one of the most striking signs of the times. This fresh outbreak of the inevitable contest between the old and the new is a fruitful source of exaggerated hopes and fears, and of excited denunciation and appeal. In this conflict a work like the Encyclopædia is not called upon to take any direct part. It has to do with knowledge rather than opinion, and to deal with all subjects from a critical and historical, rather than a dogmatic, point of view. It cannot be the organ of any sect or party in Science, Religion, or Philosophy. Its main duty is to give an accurate account of the facts and an impartial summary of results in every department of inquiry and research. This duty will, I hope, be faithfully performed. ST ANDREWS, 1st January 1875. T. S. BAYNES. 1 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. A, A THE first symbol of every Indo-European alphabet, | of the speech-organs, in which the breath escapes without denotes also the primary vowel sound. This coin- any stoppage, friction, or sibilation arising from the concidence is probably only accidental. The alphabets of tact of those organs, whereas consonants are heard when Europe, and perhaps of India also, were of Semitic origin, the organs open after such contact more or less complete. and in all the Semitic alphabets except one, this same Now, all vowels except a are pronounced with a certain symbol (in modified forms) holds the first place; but it contraction of the organs; thus, in sounding the i(the represents a peculiar breathing, not the vowel a, the English e-sound), the tongue is raised so as almost to vowels in the Semitic languages occupying a subordinate touch the palate, the passage left being so close, that if place, and having originally no special symbols. When the tongue were suffered for a second to rest on the palate, the Greeks, with whom the vowel sounds were much more there would be heard not i but y; and a similar relation important, borrowed the alphabet of Phoenicia, they re- exists between u and w. This is commonly expressed by quired symbols to express those vowels, and used for this calling y and w semi-vowels. We might more exactly call purpose the signs of breathings which were strange toi and u consonantal-vowels; and as an historic fact, i does them, and therefore needed not to be preserved; thus the constantly pass into y, and u into w, and vice versa. But Phoenician equivalent of the Hebrew aleph became alpha; no consonant has this relation to the a-sound; it has absoit denoted, however, no more a guttural breathing, but the lutely no affinity to any consonant; it is, as we have called purest vowel sound. Still, it would be too much to it, the one primary essential vowel. assume that the Greeks of that day were so skilled in phonetics that they assigned the first symbol of their borrowed alphabet to the a-sound, because they knew that sound to be the most essential vowel. This primary vowel-sound (the sound of a in father) is produced by keeping the passage through which the air is vocalised between the glottis and the lips in the most open position possible. In sounding all other vowels, the airchannel is narrowed by the action either of the tongue or the lips. But here neither the back of the tongue is raised (as it is in sounding o and other vowels), so that a free space is left between the tongue and the uvula, nor is the front of the tongue raised (as in sounding e), so that the space is clear between the tongue and the palate. Again, no other vowel is pronounced with a wider opening of the lips; whereas the aperture is sensibly reduced at each side when we sound o, and still more when we sound u (that is, yoo). The whole channel, therefore, from the glottis, where the breath first issues forth to be modified in the oral cavity, to the lips, where it finally escapes, is thoroughly open. Hence arises the great importance of the sound, by reason of its thoroughly non-consonantal character. All vowels may be defined as open positions e a The importance of this sound may be shown by historical as well as by physiological evidence. We find by tracing the process of phonetic change in different languages, that when one vowel passes into another, it is the pure a-sound which thus assumes other forms, whereas other vowels do not pass into the a-sound, though sometimes the new sound may have this symbol. Roughly speaking, we might express the general character of vowel change by drawing two lines from a common point, at which a is placed. One of these lines marks the progress of an original a (ah-sound) through e (a-sound), till it sinks finally to i (e-sound); the other marks a similar degradation, through o to u (oo-sound). This figure omits many minor modifications, and is subject to some exceptions in particular languages. But it represents fairly in the main the general process of vowelchange. Now, we do not assert that there ever was a time when a was the only existing vowel, but we do maintain that in numberless cases an original a has passed into other sounds, whereas the reverse process is excessively I. — I rare. Consequently, the farther we trace back the history of language, the more instances of this vowel do we find; the more nearly, if not entirely, does it become the one starting point from which all vowel-sound is derived. It is principally to the effort required to keep this sound pure that we must attribute the great corruption of it in all languages, and in none more than our own. Indeed, in English, the short a-sound is never heard pure; it is heard in Scotland, e.g., in man, which is quite different from the same word on English lips. We have it, however, long in father, &c., though it is not common. It has passed into a great many other sounds, all of which are denoted in a most confusing way by the original symbol, and some by other symbols as well. Thus a denotes (1.) The English vowel-sound in man, perhaps the most common of all the substitutes, dating from the 17th century. (2.) It appears in want; for this sound o is also employed, as in on. (3.) A more open sound is heard in all (also denoted by au in auk, and aw in awl). (4.) Very commonly it represents the continental e, as in ale (here also we have the symbol ai in ail). (5.) It is found in dare and many similar words, where the sound is really the e of den, prolonged in the utterance; here also ai is sometimes an equivalent, as in air. Then (6) there is a sound which is not that of a either in man or in father, but something between the two. It is heard in such words as ask, pass, grant, &c. All these may be, and often are, pronounced with the sound either of man or of father; still, we do often hear in them a clearly distinguishable intermediate sound, which ought to have a special symbol. Lastly (7), there is the dull sound heard in final unaccentuated syllables, e.g., in the word final itself. It is that to which all unaccentuated syllables tend; but it is also often heard even in monosyllables, where it is represented by every other vowelsymbol in the language, e.g., in her, sir, son, sun. This Protean sound is commonly called the neutral vowel; it occurs in all languages, but perhaps in none so frequently as in English. This great variety of sounds, which are all denoted among us by one symbol, clearly shows the insufficiency of our written alphabet. As in English, so in Sanskrit, the short ah-sound was lost, and was replaced regularly by the neutral sound. This was regarded by the grammarians as inherent in every consonant, and therefore was only written at the beginning of a word; in fact, it is the smallest amount of vowelsound requisite to float a consonant. Long a, however, kept its sound pure, and does so still in the vernaculars of India. In Latin the sound was probably pure, both short and long, and it has been preserved so in the Romance languages down to the present day. In Greek there was considerable variation, proved in one case at least by a variation of symbol; in Ionic a commonly passed into n, a symbol which probably denoted the modern Italian open e; but possibly the close e, that is, the English a in ale. On the other hand, it is probable that the Doric a approximated to an o, being sounded as a in our word want; and it is likely that this variation was the λareaσpós which the grammarians attribute to the Dorians. This is commonly supposed to have been the retention of a where the Ionic had ; but that was not peculiar to the Dorians, being common to all the Greeks except the Ionians. In the north of Europe we find a similar tendency to give to an o-sound; thus in Norse, aa is sounded as an open o. By a further extension in the north of England, at least in such parts as have been specially exposed to Norwegian influence, au has the sound of o; e.g., law is pronounced lo. A is frequently used as a prefix in lieu of some fuller form in old English. Thus it stands for the preposition on (O.E. an) in away, again, afoot, asleep; for off in adown (O.E. of-dune); and seems to be intensive in athirst (O.E. of-thirst). Sometimes, especially with verbs, it represents the old English a, which in old High German appears as ur or er, and in modern German as er, which signifies the completion of an action, as in erwachen, to which awake corresponds. Frequently no special force seems to be added by the prefix, as in abide, arise, &c. Sometimes a appears as the representative of the prefix commonly used in past participles, which has the form ge in German, and ge and y in old English, e.g., in ago or agone; compare aware (O.E. gewaere), among (O.E. gemang), &c. A also stood for the preposition an (on) in such expressions (now obsolete) as a-doing, a-making, where doing and making are verbal nouns. Lastly, it represents the prepositions on or of in the phrases now-a-days, Jack-a-lantern, and others. The place that A occupies in the alphabet accounts for its being much employed as a mark or symbol. It is used, for instance, to name the sixth note of the gamut in music; in some systems of notation it is a numeral (see ARITHMETIC); and in Logic it denotes a universal affirmative proposition (see LOGIC). In algebra, a and the first letters of the alphabet are employed to represent known quantities. Al marks the best class of vessels in Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping. In the old poets, "A per se" is found, meaning the highest degree of excellence; as when Chaucer calls Creseide "the floure and A per se of Troye and Grece." A was the first of the eight literæ nundinales at Rome, and on this analogy it stands as the first of the seven Dominical letters. It is often used as an abbreviation, as in A.D. for anno domini, A.M. for ante meridiem, A.B. and A.M. for artium baccalaureus and artium magister. In commerce A stands for accepted. (J. P.) AA, the name of about forty small European rivers. The word is derived from the old German aha, cognate to the Latin aqua, water. The following are the more important streams of this name:-a river of Holland, in North Brabant, which joins the Dommel at Bois-le-Duc; two rivers in the west of Russia, both falling into the Gulf of Livonia, near Riga, which is situated between them; a river in the north of France, falling into the sea at Gravelines, and navigable as far as St Omer; and a river of Switzerland, in the cantons of Lucerne and Aargau, which carries the waters of Lakes Baldeker and Hallwyler into the Aar. AACHEN. See AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. AALBORG, a city and seaport of Denmark, is situated on the Liimfiord, about 15 miles from its junction with the Cattegat. It is the capital of the district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of the province of Jütland. The city is a place of considerable commercial importance, and contains a cathedral and a school of navigation. Soap, tobacco, and leather are manufactured; there are several distilleries; and the herring fishery is extensively prosecuted. Grain and herring are largely exported, as are also to a smaller extent wool, cattle, skins, tallow, salt provisions, and spirits. The harbour, which is good and safe, though difficult of access, is entered by about 800 vessels annually, and there is direct steam communication with Copenhagen. The district is celebrated for its breed of horses. Popula tion (1870), 11,953. AALEN, a walled town of Würtemberg, pleasantly situated on the Kocher, at the foot of the Swabian Alps, about 50 miles E. of Stuttgart. Woollen and linen goods are manufactured, and there are ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. Aalen was a free imperial city from 1360 till 1802, when it was annexed to Würtemberg. Population (1871), 5552. AAR, or AARE, the most considerabie river in Switzerland, after the Rhine and Rhone. It rises in the glaciers diffused prosperity. Many of the inhabitants are employed in the fishings on the Aar, and in the navigation of the river. In the villages and towns there are considerable manufactures of cotton goods, silk, and linen. The chief exports are cattle, hides, cheese, timber, raw cotton, yarn, cotton cloths, silk, machinery, and wooden wares; and the imports include wheat, wine, salt, leather, and iron. The most important towns are Aarau, Baden, Zofingen, and Laufenburg, and there are mineral springs at Baden, Schinznach, Leerau, and Niederweil. The Swiss Junction Railway crosses the Rhine near Waldshut, and runs south through the canton to Turgi, whence one line proceeds S.E. to Zurich, and another S. W. to Aarau and Olben. of the Finster-aarhorn, Schreckhorn, and Grimsel, in the are many vineyards, and much fruit is grown. The cancanton of Bern; and at the Handeck in the valley of Hashton is distinguished by its industry and its generally forms a magnificent water-fall of above 150 feet in height. It then falls successively into the lakes Brienz and Thun, and, emerging from the latter, flows through the cantons of Bern, Soleure, and Aargau, emptying itself into the Rhine, opposite Waldshut, after a course of about 170 miles. Its principal tributary streams are the Kander, Saane, and Thiele on the left, and the Emmen, Surin, Aa, Reuss, and Limmat, on the right. On its banks are situated Unterseen, Thun, Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, Aarburg, and Aarau. The Aar is a beautiful silvery river, abounding in fish, and is navigable from the Rhine as far as the Lake of Thun. Several small rivers in Germany have the same name. AARAU, the chief town of the canton of Aargau in Switzerland, is situated at the foot of the Jura mountains, on the right bank of the river Aar, 41 miles N.E. of Bern. It is well built, and contains a town-hall, barracks, several small museums, and a library rich in histories of Switzerland. There is a cannon foundry at Aarau, and among the principal manufactures are silk, cotton, and leather; also cutlery and mathematical instruments, which are held in great repute. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are partially covered with vines, and the vicinity of the town is attractive. About ten miles distant along the right bank of the Aar are the famous baths of Schinznach. Population, 5449. AARD-VARK (earth-pig), an animal very common in South Africa, measuring upwards of three feet in length, and having a general resemblance to a short-legged pig. It feeds on ants, and is of nocturnal habits, and very timid and harmless. Its flesh is used as food, and when suitably preserved is considered a delicacy. The animal is the only known species of its genus (Orycteropus), and belongs to the order Edentata of the mammalia. The same prefix Aard appears in the name of the AARD-WOLF (Proteles Lalandii), a rare animal found in Caffraria, which is said to partake of the characters of the dog and civet. See MAMMALIA. AARGAU (French, ARGOVIE), one of the cantons of Switzerland, derives its name from the river which flows through it, Aar-gau being the province or district of the Aar. It is bounded on the north by the Rhine, which divides it from the duchy of Baden, on the east by Zurich and Zug, on the south by Lucerne, and on the west by Bern, Soleure or Solothurn, and Basel. It has an area of 502 square miles. By the census of 1870, the number of inhabitants was 198,873, showing an increase during the preceding ten years of 4665. Aargau stands sixth among the Swiss cantons in density of population, having 395 inhabitants to the square mile. The statistics of 1870 show that of the inhabitants 107,703 were Protestants, 89,180 Catholics, and 1541 Jews. German is the language almost universally spoken. Aargau is the least mountainous canton of Switzerland. It forms part of a great table-land to the north of the Alps and the east of the Jura, having a general elevation of from 1200 to 1500 feet. The hills do not rise to any greater height than 1800 feet above this table-land, or 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered by the Aar and its numerous tributaries, and by the rivulets which flow northward into the Rhine. Although moist and variable, the climate is milder than in most parts of Switzerland. The minerals of Aargau are unimportant, but remarkable paleontological remains are found in its rocks. The soil to the left of the Aar is a stiff clay, but to the right it is light and productive. Agriculture is in an advanced state, and great attention is given to the rearing of cattle. There Until 1798, Aargau formed part of the canton of Bern, but when the Helvetic Republic was proclaimed, it was erected into a separate canton. In 1803 it received a considerable accession of territory, in virtue of the arrangement under which the French evacuated Switzerland. According to the law whereby the cantons are represented in the National Council by one member for every 20,000 inhabitants, Aargau returns ten representatives to that assembly. The internal government is vested in a legislative council elected by the body of the people, while a smaller council of seven members is chosen by the larger body for the general administration of affairs. The resources of Aargau are stated to amount to about a million sterling; its revenue in 1867 was nearly £82,000, and the expenditure slightly greater. There is a public debt of about £40,000. The canton is divided into eleven districts, and these again are subdivided into forty-eight circles. There is a court of law for each district, and a superior court for the whole canton, to which cases involving sums above 160 francs can be appealed. Education is compulsory; but in the Roman Catholic districts the law is not strictly enforced. By improved schools and other appliances great progress has been made in education within the last thirty or forty years. AARHUUS, a city and seaport of Denmark, situated on the Cattegat, in lat. 56° 9′ N., long. 10° 12' E. It is the chief town of a fertile district of the same name, one of the subdivisions of Jutland. The cathedral of Aarhuus is a Gothic structure, and the largest church in Denmark. The town also contains a lyceum, museum, and library. Aarhuus is a place of extensive trade. It has a good and safe harbour, has regular steam communication with Copenhagen, and is connected by rail with Viborg and the interior of the country. Agricultural produce, spirits, leather, and gloves are exported, and there are sugar refineries, and manufactures of wool, cotton, and tobacco. Population (1870), 15,020. AARON, the first high-priest of the Jews, eldest son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe of Levi, and brother of Moses and Miriam. When Moses was commissioned to conduct the Israelites from Egypt to Canaan, Aaron was appointed to assist him, principally, it would appear, on account of his possessing, in a high degree, persuasive readiness of speech. On the occasion of Moses' absence in Mount Sinai (to which he had gone up to receive the tables of the law), the Israelites, regarding Aaron as their leader, clamorously demanded that he should provide them with a visible symbolic image of their God for worship. He weakly complied with the demand, and out of the ornaments of gold contributed for the purpose cast the figure of a calf, this form being doubtless chosen in recollection of the idols of Egypt. In obedience to instructions given by God to Moses, Aaron was appointed high-priest; his sons and descendants, priests; and his tribe was set apart as the sacerdotal caste. The office of high-priest was held by Aaron for nearly forty years, till the time of his |