Sir W. ground of common sense, that beauty must exist in objects independently of our minds. As to the nature of the Beautiful, he taught that all beauty resides primarily in the faculties of the mind, intellectual and moral. The beauty which is spread over the face of visible nature is an emanation from this spiritual beauty, and is beautiful because it symbolises and expresses it. Thus the beauty of a plant resides in its perfection for its end, as an expression of the wisdom of its Creator. Reid's theory of beauty is thus purely spiritual. The celebrated Lectures on Metaphysics of Sir W. Hamilton Hamilton. do not, unfortunately, contain more than a slight preliminary sketch of the writer's theory of the emotional activities. He defines pleasure, following very closely the theory of Aristotle, as "a reflex of the spontaneous and unimpeded exertion of a power of whose energy we are conscious" (vol. ii. p. 440). And, in perfect agreement with this conception, he divides the various feelings according to the faculties or powers, bodily or mental, of which they are the concomitants. In the scheme thus faintly shadowed forth, the sentiments of Taste are regarded as subserving both the subsidiary and the elaborative faculties in cognition, in other words, the Imagination and the Understanding. The activity of the former corresponds to the element of variety in the beautiful object, while that of the latter is concerned with its unity. A beautiful thing is accordingly defined as one whose form occupies the Imagination and Understanding in a free and full, and, consequently, in an agreeable activity" (p. 512). In this way, the writer conceives, he comprehends all pre-existing definitions of beauty. He explicitly excludes all other varieties of pleasure, such as the sensuous, from the proper gratification of beauty. The æsthetic sentiment is thus regarded as unique and not resolvable into simpler feelings. Similarly, he denies any proper attribute of beauty to fitness. The essence of the sentiment of sublimity he finds, much in the same way as Kant, in a mingled pleasure and pain; "of pleasure in the consciousness of the strong energy, of pain in the consciousness that this energy is vain." He recognises three forms of Sublimity: those of Extension or space, of Protension or time, and of Intension or power. Finally, he thinks that the Picturesque differs from the Beautiful in appealing simply to the imagination. A picturesque object is one whose parts are so palpably unconnected that the understanding is not stimulated to the perception of unity. Ruskin. A very like interpretation of beauty, as spiritual and typical of divine attributes, has been given by Mr Ruskin in the second volume of his Modern Painters. This part of his work, bearing the title "Of Ideas of Beauty," has a very systematic appearance, but is in fact a singularly desultory series of æsthetic ideas put into a very charming language, and coloured by strong emotion. Mr Ruskin distinguishes between the theoretic faculty concerned in the moral perception and appreciation of ideas of beauty and the imaginative or artistic faculty, which is employed in regarding in a certain way and combining the ideas received from external nature. The former, he thinks, is wrongly named the aesthetic faculty, as though it were a mere operation of sense. The object of the faculty is beauty, which Mr Ruskin divides into typical and vital beauty. The former is the external quality of bodies that typifies some divine attribute. The latter consists in "the appearance of felicitous fulfilment of function in living things." The forms of typical beauty are-(1.) Infinity, the type of the divine incomprehensibility; (2.) Unity, the type of the divine comprehensiveness; (3.) Repose, the type of the divine permanence; (4.) Symmetry, the type of the divine justice; (5.) Purity, the type of the divine energy; and (6.) Moderation, the type of government by law. Vital beauty, again, is regarded as relative when the degree of exaltation of the function is estimated, or generic if only the degree of conformity of an individual to the appointed functions of the species is taken into account. Mr Ruskin's wide knowledge and fine æsthetic perception make his works replete with valuable suggestions, though he appears wanting in scientific accuracy, and lacks, as Mr Mill has pointed out, all appreciation of the explanatory power of association with respect to the ideal elements of typical beauty. ists. Of the more analytic writers on the effects of the Beautiful, The analy Addison deserves a passing mention, less, however, for the tical theor scientific precision of his definitions, than for the charm Addison. of his style. His Essays on the Imagination, contributed to the Spectator, are admirable specimens of popular æsthetic reflection. Addison means by the pleasures of imagination those which arise originally from sight, and he divides them into two classes (1.) Primary pleasures, which entirely proceed from objects before our eyes; and (2.) Secondary pleasures, flowing from ideas of visible objects. . The original sources of pleasure in visible objects are greatness, novelty, and beauty. This, it may be said, is a valuable distinction, as pointing to the plurality of sources in the aesthetic impression, but the threefold division is only a very rough tentative, and destitute of all logical value, novelty of impression being always a condition of beauty. The secondary pleasures, he rightly remarks, are rendered far more extended than the original by the addition of the proper enjoyment of resemblance, which is at the basis of all mimicry and wit. Addison recognises, too, the effects of association in the suggestion of whole scenes, and their accompaniments by some single circumstance. He has some curious hints as to the physiological seat of these mental processes, and seeks, somewhat naïvely, to connect these pleasures with teleological considerations. In the Elements of Criticism of Lord Kaimes, another Lord attempt is made to affiliate æsthetic phenomena to simpler Kaimes. pleasures of experience. Beauty and ugliness are simply the pleasant and the unpleasant in the higher senses of sight and hearing. By "higher" he means more intellectual, and he conceives these two senses to be placed midway between the lower senses and the understanding. He appears to admit no more general feature in beautiful objects than this pleasurable quality. Like Hutcheson, he divides beauty into intrinsic and relative, but understands by the latter ideas of fitness and utility, which were excluded from the Beautiful by Hutcheson. He illustrates the English tendency to connect mental processes with physiological conditions, by referring the main elements of the feeling of sublimity to the effect of height in objects in compelling the spectator to stand on tiptoe, by which the chest is expanded and muscular movements produced which give rise to the peculiar emotion. Passing by the name of Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose Hogarth. theory of beauty closely resembles that of Père Buffier, we come to the speculations of another artist and painter, Hogarth. He discusses in his Analysis of Beauty all the elements of visible beauty, both form and colour, often manifesting great speculative skill, and always showing a wide and accurate knowledge of art. He finds altogether six elements in beauty, namely-(1.) Fitness of the parts to some design, as of the limbs for support and movement; (2.) Variety in as many ways as possible, thus in form, length, and direction of line, shape, and magnitude of figure, &c.; (3.) Uniformity, regularity, or symmetry, which is only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of fitness; (4.) Simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5.) Intricacy, which provides employment for our active energies, ever eager for pursuit, and leads the eye "a wanton kind of chase"; (6.) Quantity Burke. Alison. incomplete. This is especially applicable to music, where or magnitude, which draws our attention, and produces Burke's speculations on the Beautiful, in his Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, are curious as introducing physiological considerations into the explanation of the feelings of beauty. They illustrate, moreover, the tendency of English writers to treat the problem as a psychological one. He finds the elements of beauty to be-(1.) Smallness of size; (2.) Smoothness of surface; (3.) Gradual variation of direction of outline, by which he means gentle curves; (4.) Delicacy, or the appearance of fragility; (5.) Brightness, purity, and softness of colour. The Sublime he resolves, not very carefully, into astonishment, which he thinks always contains an element of terror. Thus "infinity has a tendency to fill the mind with a delightful horror." Burke seeks what he calls "efficient causes" for these phenomena in certain affections of the nerves of sight, which he compares with the operations of taste, smell, and touch. Terror produces an unnatural tension and certain violent emotions of the nerves," hence any objects of sight which produce this tension awaken the feeling of the Sublime, which is a kind of terror. Beautiful objects affect the nerves of sight just as smooth surfaces the nerves of touch, sweet tastes and odours the corresponding nerve fibres, namely, by relaxing them, and so producing a soothing effect on the mind. The arbitrariness and narrowness of this theory, looked at as a complete explanation of beauty, cannot well escape the reader's attention. Alison, in his well-known Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste, proceeds on an exactly opposite method to that of Hogarth and Burke. He considers and seeks to analyse the mental process which goes on when we experience the emotion of beauty or sublimity. He finds that this consists in a peculiar operation of the imagination, namely, the flow of a train of ideas through the mind, which ideas are not arbitrarily determined, but always correspond to some simple affection or emotion (as cheerfulness, sadness, awe), awakened by the object. He thus makes association the sole source of the Beautiful, and denies any such attribute to the simple impressions of the senses. His exposition, which is very extensive, contains many ingenious and valuable contributions to the ideal or association side of æsthetic effects, both of nature and of art; but his total exclusion of delight (by which name he distinguishes æsthetic pleasure) from the immediate effects of colour, visible form, and tone, makes his theory appear very D. Stewart's chief merit in the æsthetic discussions, con- Dugald tained in his Philosophical Essays, consists in pointing out Stewart, this unwarranted assumption of some single quality (other than that of producing a certain refined pleasure) running through all beautiful objects, and constituting the essence of beauty. He shows very ingeniously how the successive transitions and generalisations in the meaning of the term beauty may have arisen. He thinks it must originally have connoted the pleasure of colour, which he recognises as primitive. His criticisms on the one-sided schemes of other writers, as Burke and Alison, are very able, though he himself hardly attempts any complete theory of beauty. His conception of the Sublime, suggested by the etymology of the word, renders prominent the element of height in objects, which he conceives as an upward direction of motion, and which operates on the mind as an exhibition of power, namely, triumph over gravity. Of the association psychologists James Mill did little Professor more towards the analysis of the sentiments of beauty than Bain. re-state Alison's doctrine. On the other hand, Professor Bain, in his treatise The Emotions and the Will, carries this examination considerably further. He asserts with Stewart that no one generalisation will comprehend all varieties of beautiful objects. He thinks, however, that the aesthetic emotions, those involved in the fine arts, may be roughly circumscribed and marked off from other modes of enjoyment by means of three characteristics (1.) Their not serving to keep up existence, but being gratifications sought for themselves only; (2.) Their purity from all repulsive ingredients; (3.) Their eminently sympathetic or sharable nature in contrast to the exclusive pleasures of the individual in eating, &c. The pleasures of art are divided, according to Mr Bain's general plan of the mind, into (1.) The elements of sensation-sights and sounds; (2.) The extension of these by intellectual revival-ideal suggestions of muscular impression, touch, odour, and other pleasurable sensations; (3.) The revival, in ideal form also, of pleasurable emotions, as tenderness and power, and in a softened measure of emotions painful in reality, as fear; (4.) The immediate gratification, that is in actual form, of certain wide emotional susceptibilities reaching beyond art, namely, the elating effect of all change of impression under the forms of artistic contrast and variety; and, secondly, the peculiar delight springing from harmony among impressions and feelings, under its several æsthetic aspects, musical harmony and melody, proportion, &c. The details in Mr Bain's exposition are rich and varied in relation to the psychology of the subject. He finds the effect of sublimity in the manifestation of superior power in its highest degrees, which manifestation excites a sympathetic Herbert elation in the beholder. The Ludicrous, again, is defined Bain recognises no new mental principle in æsthetic effects, very ingenious, even if not very definite, mode of explaining many of the mysterious effects of tone, and even of colour. Among works on the history of æsthetic doctrines, the student may be referred to the following: In German literature, which contains the most complete histories, Max Schasler's Kritische Geschichte der Esthetik, forming the first two volumes of an æsthetic system, is the fullest. Still he hardly does justice to English writers, there being no mention of Alison and recent thinkers. His stand-point is only definable as a new modification of Hegelianism. Zimmermann's Geschichte der Esthetik is also to be recommended. Lotze's Geschichte der Esthetik in Deutschland is a highly critical résumé of German systems, characterised by a good deal of caution, and a desire to mediate between opposing views, and if not very definite in its result, very appreciative and suggestive of the many-sidedness of the subject. In French, Lévêque's work, La Science du Beau, contains a very fair account of the most conspicuous systems, ancient and modern. In our own literature, numerous references to other systems are to be found in the essays of Alison; and Jeffrey attempts a brief historical survey of the doctrines of beauty in his article on the subject. Dugald Stewart's essays mostly fall into critical examination of the chief theories of beauty. Finally, Professor Bain, in his Compendium of Mental and Moral Science, supplies a brief but careful account of most of the known theories of the Beautiful. (J. S.) AETION, a painter, whose famous picture of the marriage of Roxana and Alexander was exhibited at the Olympic games, and gained Aëtion so much reputation that the president of the games gave him his daughter in marriage. The picture is minutely described by Lucian. Aëtion appears from that author to have flourished in the times of Hadrian and the Antonines. An interesting turn has been given to the psychology of aesthetics by Mr Herbert Spencer. In some of his essays, as the one entitled "The Origin and Function of Music," and more fully in the concluding chapter of his Psychology (second edition), on the Esthetic Sentiments, he offers a new theory of the genesis of the pleasures of beauty and art, based on his doctrine of evolution. He takes up Schiller's idea of the connection between æsthetic activity and play, only he deals with this latter not as an ideal tendency, but as a phenomenal reality, seeking to make it the actual starting-point in the order of evolution of æsthetic action. Play or sport is defined as the superfluous and useless exercise of faculties that have been quiescent for a time, and have in this way become so ready to discharge as to relieve themselves by simulated actions. Esthetic activities yield to the higher powers of perception and emotion the substituted exercise which play AETIUS, a Roman general of the closing period of the yields to the lower impulses, agreeing with play in not western empire, born at Dorostolus in Moesia, late in the directly subserving any processes conducive to life, but 4th century. While detained for some time as a hostage being gratifications sought for themselves only. This This in the camp of Rhuas, king of the Huns, he acquired an point of affinity between the two classes of pleasures is a influence with the barbarians that was afterwards of much valuable addition to æsthetic theory, and helps one to advantage to himself, though the same cannot be said of it understand how the artistic impulse first arose. At the as regards the empire. He led into Italy an army of same time it is doubtful how far all present æsthetic 60,000 Huns, which he employed first to support the usurp pleasures, as the passive enjoyments of colour and tone, can ing Emperor John, and, on the death of the latter, to enforce be interpreted as substituted activities in Mr Spencer's his claim to the supreme command of the army in Gaul sense. They seem rather to be original and instinctive upon Placidia, the empress-mother and regent for Valenmodes of gratification not dependent on any previous exertinian III. Afterwards, when he incurred the disfavour cises of life-function, except so far as the structure and of Placidia for the death of his rival Boniface, he again functions of the senses as a whole may be viewed as the employed an army of Huns to compel her to reinstate him product of multitudinous life-processes in animal evolu- in his former position. In Gaul he won his military repution. Mr Spencer, moreover, forms a hierarchy of æsthetic tation, upholding for nearly twenty years, by combined pleasures, the standard of height being either the number policy and daring, the falling fortunes of the western of powers duly exercised, or what comes to the same empire. His greatest victory was that of Chalons-sur-Marne thing, the degree of complexity of the emotional faculty (20th Sept. 451), in which he utterly routed Attila and the thus exercised. The first, and lowest class of pleasures, Huns-the number slain on both sides being, according to are those of simple sensation, as tone and colour, which one computation, 300,000, though this is obviously an are partly organic and partly the results of association. exaggeration. This was the last triumph of the empire. The second class are the pleasures of perception, as emThree years later (454) Aëtius presented himself at court ployed upon the combination of colours, &c. The highest to clain the emperor's daughter in marriage for his son order of pleasures are those of the aesthetic sentiments Gaudentius; but Valentinian, suspecting him of designs proper, consisting of the multitudinous emotions ideally upon the crown, slew him with his own hand. excited by æsthetic objects, natural and artistic. Among these vaguely and partially revived emotions Mr Spencer reckons not only those of the individual, but also many of the constant feelings of the race. Thus he would attribute the vagueness and apparent depth of musical emotion to associations with vocal tones, built up during the course of vast ages. This graduated scheme is evidently dictated by the assumption that the higher the stage of evolution, the higher the pleasure. Yet Mr Spencer admits that this measure of æsthetic value will not suffice alone, and he adds, that the most perfect form of aesthetic gratification is realised when sensation, perception, and emotion, are present in fullest and most pleasurable action. Mr Spencer's supposition, that much of the pleasure of æsthetic emotion is referrible to transmitted experience, offers a AETIUS, surnamed "the Atheist," founder of an extreme sect of the Arians, was a native of Cole-Syria. After working for some time as a coppersmith, he became a travelling doctor, and displayed great skill in disputations on medical subjects; but his controversial power soon found a wider field for its exercise in the great theological question of the time. He studied successively under the Arians, Paulinus, bishop of Antioch, Athanasius, bishop of Anazarbus, and the presbyter Antonius of Tarsus. In 350 he was ordained a deacon by Leontius of Antioch, but was shortly afterwards forced by the orthodox party to leave that town. At the first synod of Sirmium, he won a dialectic victory over the homoiousian bishops Basilius and Eustathius, who sought in consequence to stir up against him the enmity of Caesar Gallus. In 356 he went to Alexandria with Eunomius in order to advocate Arianism, but he was banished by Constantius. Julian the apostate recalled him from exile, bestowed upon him an estate in Lesbos, and retained him for a time at his court in Constantinople. Being consecrated a bishop, he used his office in the interests of Arianism by creating other bishops of that party. At the accession of Valens (364) he retired to his estate at Lesbos, but soon returned to Constantinople, where he died in 367. The Anomoean sect of the Arians, of whom he was the leader, are sometimes called after him Aëtians. His work De Fide has been preserved in connection with a refutation written by Epiphanius. AETIUS, a Greek physician, born at Amida in Mesopotamia, who lived at the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century. Of his personal history little is known, except that he studied at Alexandria, and was physician to the court at Constantinople with the title comes obsequii. He wrote a work entitled Bißía 'Iaтpikà 'Ekkaideka, which is mainly a compilation from the works of previous authors. Eight books of this were issued from the Aldine press at Venice in 1534; various other parts have been frequently published; and a Latin translation of the whole, by Cornarius, appeared at Basle in 1542. ETNA. See ETNA. ÆTOLIA, a country of ancient Greece, bounded on the N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by the provinces of Doris and Locris, on the S. by the Gulf of Corinth, and separated on the W. from Acarnania by the river Achelous. The part which lay westward of the river Evenus, and south of a line joining Thermum and Stratus in Acarnania, was called old Ætolia, the rest of the country new or acquired Ætolia. The country is in general mountainous and woody, but along the coast from the Achelous to the Evenus, and northward to Mount Aracynthus, is a plain of great fertility; while another extensive and fertile plain stretches north from this mountain along the east bank of the Achelous as far as the northern limit of old Ætolia. The Etolians were a restless and turbulent people, strangers to friendship or principles of honour, and they were consequently regarded by the other states of Greece as outlaws and public robbers. On the other hand, they were bold and enterprising in war, undaunted in the greatest dangers, and jealous defenders of their liberties. They distinguished themselves above all the other nations of Greece in opposing the ambitious designs of the Macedonian princes, who, after having reduced most of the other states, were forced to grant them a peace upon very honourable terms. The constitution of the Ætolian league was copied from that of the Achæans, and with a view to form, as it were, a counter alliance. The Cleomenic war, and that of the allies, called the Social War, were kindled by the Etolians with the express purpose of humbling the Achæans. In the latter they held out, with the assistance only of the Eleans and Lacedemonians, for the space of three years, against the united forces of Achaia and Macedon, but were obliged at last to purchase a peace by yielding up to Philip all Acarnania. În order to regain this province they entered into an alliance with Rome against Philip, and proved of great service to the Romans in their war with him; but being dissatisfied with the terms of peace granted by Flaminius, they made war upon the Romans themselves. They were speedily overcome, and only obtained peace on very humiliating terms. After the conquest of Macedon by Emilius Paullus the Etolians were reduced to a much worse condition; for not only those among them who had openly declared for Perseus, but those who were only suspected to have secretly favoured him, were sent to Rome to clear themselves before the senate. There they were detained, and never afterwards permitted to return to their native country. | Five hundred and fifty of the chief men were barbarously assassinated by the partisans of Rome solely on the suspicion of favouring the designs of Perseus. The Etolians appeared before Æmilius Paullus in mourning habits, and made loud complaints of such inhuman treatment, but could obtain no redress; on the contrary, ten commissioners, who had been sent by the senate to settle the affairs of Greece, enacted a decree, declaring that those who were killed had suffered justly, since it appeared to them that they had favoured the Macedonian party. From this time those only were raised to the chief honours and employments in the Ætolian republic who were known to prefer the interest of Rome to that of their country, and thus all the magistrates of Ætolia became the creatures and mere tools of the Roman senate. In this state of servile subjection they continued till the destruction of Corinth and the dissolution of the Achæan league, when Ætolia, with the other free states of Greece, was reduced to a Roman province, commonly called the province of Achaia. In this state, with little alteration, Ætolia continued under the emperors till the reign of Constantine the Great, who, in his new partition of the provinces of the empire, divided the western parts of Greece from the rest, calling them New Epirus, and subjecting the whole country to the præfectus prætorio for Illyricum. Under the successors of Constantine Greece was parcelled out into several principalities, especially after the taking of Constantinople by the western princes. About the beginning of the 13th century Theodorus Angelus, a noble Grecian of the imperial family, seized on Ætolia and Epirus. The former he left to Michael his son, who maintained it against Michael Palæologus, the first emperor of the Greeks, after the expulsion of the Latins. Charles, the last prince of this family, dying in 1430 without lawful issue, bequeathed Ætolia to his brother's son, named also Charles; and Acarnania to his natural sons Memnon, Turnus, and Hercules. But great disputes arising about this division, Amurath II., after the reduction of Thessalonica, laid hold of so favourable an opportunity, and expelled all the contending heirs in 1432. The Mahometans were afterwards dispossessed of this country by the famous prince of Epirus, George Castriot, commonly called Scanderbeg, who with a small army opposed the whole power of the Ottoman empire, and was victorious in twenty-two pitched battles. That hero at his death left great part of Ætolia to the Venetians; but they not being able to make head against such a mighty power, the whole country was soon reduced by Mahommed II. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece. AFANASIEF, ALEKSANDR NIKOLAEVICH, a Russian scholar, distinguished for his researches in Slavonic literature and archæology, was born about 1825. He contributed many valuable articles to the serial literature of his country, but his reputation rests chiefly on two works of more permanent interest. The first was an extensive collection, in eight parts, of Russian Popular Stories; the other a treatise, in three volumes, on the Poetical Views of the Old Slavonians about Nature, completed just before the author's death, which occurred in the autumn of 1871. AFER, DOMITIUS, orator, born at Nismes, flourished under Tiberius and the three succeeding emperors. Quintilian makes frequent mention of him, and commends his pleadings. But he disgraced his talents by acting as public accuser in behalf of the emperors against some of the most distinguished personages in Rome. Quintilian, in his youth, assiduously cultivated the friendship of Domitius. He tells us that his pleadings were superior in point of eloquence to any he had ever heard, and that there were public collections of his witty sayings (dicta), some of which he quotes. He also mentions two books of his, On Witnesses. Domitius erected a statue in honour of Caligula, on which there was an inscription to the effect that this prince was a second time consul at the age of 27. This he intended as an encomium; but Caligula regarding it as a sarcasm upon his youth and his infringement of the laws, raised a process against him, and pleaded himself in person. Domitius, instead of making a defence, repeated part of the emperor's speech with the highest marks of admiration; after which he fell upon his knees, begged pardon, and declared that he dreaded Caligula's eloquence more than his imperial power. This piece of flattery succeeded so well, that the emperor not only pardoned him, but raised him to the consulship. Afer died in the reign of Nero, A.D. 60. AFFIDAVIT means a solemn assurance of a matter of fact known to the person who states it, and attested as his statement by some person in authority. Evidence is chiefly taken by means of affidavits in the practice of the Court of Chancery in England. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 42, s. 42, provision is made for appointing commissioners in Scotland and Ireland to take affidavits. The term is generally applied to a statement certified by a justice of peace or other magistrate. Affidavits are sometimes necessary as certificates that certain formalities have been duly and legally performed. They are extensively used in the practice of bankruptcy, and in the administration of the revenue. At one time they were invariably taken on oath, but this practice has been much narrowed. Quakers, Moravians, and Separatists have long been privileged in all cases to make a solemn declaration or affirmation; and now, if any persons called as witnesses, or required or desiring to make an affidavit or deposition, shall refuse or be unwilling from alleged conscientious motives to be sworn, the court or justice may, on being satisfied of the sincerity of such objection, allow such person to make a solemn affirmation or declaration-by 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, s. 20, extended to all counties in England, Ireland, and Scotland by subsequent statutes. An Act of 1835 (5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 62) substituted declarations for oaths in certain cases; and this statute is extensively observed. The same Act prohibited justices of peace from administering oaths in any matter in which they had not jurisdiction as judges, except when an oath was specially authorised by statute, as in the bankrupt law, and excepting criminal inquiries, Parliamentary proceedings, and instances where oaths are required to give validity to documents abroad. But justices are permitted to take affidavits in any matter by declaration, and a person making a false affidavit in this way is liable to punishment. Affidavits may be made abroad before any British ambassador, envoy, minister, chargé d'affaires, secretary of embassy or legation, consul, or consular agent (18 and 19 Vict. c. 42, s. 1). AFFINITY, in Law, as distinguished from consanguinity, is applied to the relation which each party to a marriage, the husband and the wife, bears to the kindred of the other. The marriage having made them one person, the blood relations of each are held as related by affinity in the same degree to the one spouse as by consanguinity to the other. But the relation is only with the married parties themselves, and does not bring those in affinity with them in affinity with each other; so a wife's sister has no affinity to her husband's brother. The subject is chiefly important from the matrimonial prohibitions by which the canon law has restricted relations by affinity. Taking the table of degrees within which marriage is prohibited on account of consanguinity, the rule has been thus extended to affinity, so that wherever relationship to a man himself would be a bar to marriage, relationship to his deceased wife will be the same bar, and vice versa on the husband's decease. This rule has been founded chiefly on interpretations of the | eighteenth chapter of Leviticus. Formerly by law in England, marriages within the degrees of affinity were not absolutely null, but they were liable to be annulled by ecclesiastical process during the lives of both parties; in other words, the incapacity was only a canonical, not a civil, disability. By an Act passed in 1835 (5 and 6 Will IV. c. 54), all marriages of this kind not disputed before the passing of the Act are declared absolutely valid, while all subsequent to it are declared null. This renders null in England, and not merely voidable, a marriage with a deceased wife's sister or niece. The Act does not extend to Scotland; but it was made quite clear by a leading decision in 1861 (Fenton v. Livingston) that, as "the degrees forbidden in consanguinity are also forbidden in affinity," the marriage of a sister-in-law with a brother-inlaw is absolutely null in that country. Nor can a man contract a marriage with his wife's sister so as to be valid in Great Britain, by celebrating his marriage with her in a country where such marriages are lawful (Brook v. Brook, 9 H. L. Cases, 193). AFFINITY, CHEMICAL, the property or relation in virtue of which dissimilar substances are capable of entering into chemical combination with each other. Substances that are so related combine always in fixed and definite proportions; the resulting compound differs from its components in its physical properties, with the exception that its weight is exactly the sum of their weights; and the combination is always accompanied with the evolution of heat. In these respects it differs from a mere mechanical mixture; in the latter there is contact without combination, and its properties are a mean or average of those of the substances that compose it. That effect may be given to chemical affinity, the substances must be placed in contact; but mere contact is often insufficient, and combination only takes place on the application of heat, light, electric agency, &c., or through the interposition of some foreign substance. Generally speaking, the affinity is less between substances that closely resemble each other than between those whose properties are altogether dissimilar. The term elective affinity, now generally disused, has been employed to indicate the greater affinity which a substance, when brought into contact with other substances, often has for one in preference to another. Advantage is frequently taken of this greater affinity to decompose compound substances. For a full treatment of chemical affinity and combination, see CHEMISTRY. AFFIRMATION. See AFFIDAVIT. AFFRE, DENIS AUGUSTE, Archbishop of Paris, was born at St Rome, in the department of Tarn, on the 27th Sept. 1793. When fourteen years of age, having expressed his desire to enter the church, he became a student at the seminary of St Sulpice, of which his maternal uncle, Denis Boyer, was director. His studies being completed before he had reached the age necessary for ordination, he was occupied for some time as professor of philosophy in the seminary at Nantes. He was ordained a priest in 1818, and held his first charge in connection with the church of St Sulpice. After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to the Archbishopric of Paris in 1840. His tenure of this office, though it was marked by great zeal and faithfulness, will be chiefly remembered by its tragic close. During the insurrection of 1848 the archbishop was led to believe that by his personal interference peace might be restored between the soldiery and the insurgents. He accordingly applied to General Cavaignac, who warned him of the risk he incurred. "My life,” the archbishop answered, "is of little importance." Soon afterwards, the firing having ceased at his request, he appeared on the barricade at the entrance to the Faubourg St Antoine, accompanied by M. Albert, of the national guard, |