2. Coffee has from very early times been the subject of sophistication. As far back as 1725, the Act 2 Geo. I. c. 30, took cognizance of the practice, and rendered it penal. In 1803 it was the object of very decisive measures, for by 43 Geo. III. c. 129, the officers of excise were empowered to search for, and to seize any burnt, scorched, or roasted peas, beans, or other grains or vegetable substance prepared in imitation of coffee; and any person manufacturing or selling the same was liable to a penalty of £100; gradually, however, it was found that use of torrefied vegetables in lieu of coffee, was becoming general in spite of these restrictions, and, therefore, in 1822, the Legislature (3 Geo. IV. c. 53) thought it expedient to allow the manufacture and sale of scorched or roasted corn, peas, beans, or turnips, by persons who were not dealers or sellers of coffee or cocoa, provided the same was sold under license in a whole or unground condition, and in its proper name. The penalty for infraction of the law was £100 in the case of a dealer in coffee or cocoa, and £50 in that of a licensed dealer. At that time the use of chicory was not generally known in England, although it had long before been introduced into France as a substitute for coffee; and its use was encouraged by the first Napoleon, who thought thus to strike a blow at English commerce. It was also used in Belgium and the Netherlands, so that travellers who visited Paris, Brussels, or Amsterdam, became acquainted with the substitute, and gradually acquired a taste for it. About the year 1820 the first parcels of chicory were imported into this country, and it would seem that the public demand for it gradually increased; for in 1832 there was a minute of the Treasury nullifying the Acts of George III. and George IV., by allowing grocers and other dealers in coffee and cocoa to sell chicory, provided they did not mix it with coffee. At a later period even this restriction was withdrawn; for by the Treasury minute of 1840, dealers in coffee were permitted to sell a mixture of chicory and coffee, provided a duty of 6d. per lb. was paid on all the chicory imported for home consumption. The use of it being thus legalised, it rapidly came into favour, and English farmers found it profitable to cultivate the root, and to send it into commerce duty free. This roused the attention of the Government, for the duties on chicory and coffee began seriously to fall off. Even the quality of the coffee imported underwent a change; for instead of demanding the fine flavoured varieties, orders were given for a coarse and strong description of plantation coffee, which would stand a good deal of chicory, as the grocers phrased it. All this was brought to the notice of the Lords of the Treasury, and in 1852 they revoked the order of 1840. But so strong was the influence of the trade upon Government, that in the following year the offensive minute was withdrawn, and grocers were again permitted to sell mixtures of coffee and chicory, provided the packet was distinctly labelled "mixture of chicory and coffee." The Treasury even went so far in 1858 as to direct the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, not to object to licensed dealers in coffee keeping and selling mangelwurzel or beet-root mixed with coffee, provided they observed the same conditions as those laid down in the Treasury minute of 1853 as to chicory and coffee. Up to this time the duty on chicory had been merely nominal; but it was gradually increased until, in 1863, it was equivalent to that levied on coffee, and thus the revenue was protected, while adulteration was encouraged. The extent to which this was practised may be gathered from the Annual Reports of Mr Phillips, the principal chemist of the Inland Revenue Laboratory. During the years 1856 to 1862 inclusive, when the dealers in coffee and chicory were visited by the officers of Excise, the average number of samples of coffee annually examined was 3053, and of these

90, or nearly 3 per cent. were adulterated-the range being from 5.1 per cent. in 1856, to 18 per cent. in 1862; and the quantity of chicory in the mixture averaged 24 per cent. In 1860 it was 29 per cent. Now, in all these cases the coffee was sold as pure coffee, with no label upon the package; but when the mixtures of chicory and coffee were asked for, 7.3 per cent. were improperly labelled, and the average proportions of chicory ranged from 39.8 per cent. in 1859, to 22.3 per cent. in 1862-the average for the seven years, before the duties were equalised, being 30.7 per cent.

In some cases, however, it reached to nearly 90 per cent.-40 to 50 per cent. being common proportions; and to neutralise the peculiar sweetness, and the earthy flavours which such quantities of chicory induced, it was, and still is the practice, to add more or less of the bitter material called "finings," which is a preparation of burnt sugar or caramel. Even chicory itself is now the subject of adulteration with roasted corn, beans, lupin seeds, acorns, horse-chesnuts, peas, pulse (called "Hambro' powder"), mustard husks, coffee husks (called "flights"), and even spent coffee, besides various roots, as carrots, parsnips, mangel-wurzel, beet-root, dandelion, &c. It is even said that spent tan and dried bullocks' livers have been employed for the purpose. The tests for these adulterations are the appearances presented by the tissues of the various vegetables when examined under the microscope, and by the fact that infusion of chicory does not become discoloured when it is treated with iodine, as it contains no starchy matters. Ground coffee, also, is of such a greasy nature, from the presence of volatile oil, that when it is thrown upon water, it floats, and does not readily discolour the water; whereas, all the adulterating agents quickly sink in water, and give it a brown porter-like appearance. It is not difficult indeed to separate, in a rough way, the coffee from its adulterating matters by merely stirring a given weight of the mixture in a tumbler of cold water; after a few minutes, the coffee will be found upon the surface of the water, and the other things at the bottom of it. Chemical analysis also readily discovers the fraud. It might be thought that there was safety in purchasing the coffee-berries entire, but a very ingenious machine has been patented for the manufacture of spurious berries out of common vegetable substances. 3. Tea. Formerly, when the supply of tea to this country was entirely under the control of the East India Company, the adulteration of it in China was rarely practised, as every shipment of it was carefully examined by experienced officers at Canton, who rejected all teas of spurious or doubtful character. At that time, therefore, the adulteration of tea was carried on after it was imported into this country, and there were many legislative enactments prohibiting the practice. By the Act 2 Geo. I. c. 3, every tea dealer was subject to a penalty of £100, if he was convicted of counterfeiting, altering, fabricating, or manufacturing tea, or mixing it with other leaves. Later still, the statutes of 4 Geo. II. c. 14, and 17 Geo. III. c. 29, and 4 Geo. IV. c. 14, dealt more precisely with the subject, and imposed other penalties. At that time the adulterations of tea were effected in a wholesale manner; for according to Mr Phillips, of the Inland Revenue Office, there were in London alone, in 1843, as many as eight manufactories in which the exhausted leaves, obtained from hotels, coffee-houses, and elsewhere, were redried, and faced with rose-pink and blacklead, in imitation of genuine tea. More recently, however, the adulteration of tea has been practised by the Chinese, who find no difficulty in disposing of any kind of spurious tea to English merchants at Canton and Shanghai, who ship it to this country, and lodge it in the bonded warehouses with all the formalities of an honourable transaction, knowing that the difficulties of convicting them under the Adulteration of Food Acts and

in the first place, the local sanitary authorities have no means of obtaining direct information of the existence of unsound or spurious tea, or other article of food or drink in bonded warehouses; and secondly, if such information reaches them indirectly, they have no legal right of entry for the purpose of examining the tea and taking samples. But supposing both of these difficulties have been surmounted, and the tea has been found on analysis to be spurious, there yet remain the difficulties of obtaining a justice's order for its condemnation, an order from the customs for its removal, and an order which will satisfy the requirements of the wharfinger in whose custody it has been placed. But besides these, there are the difficulties of proving the ownership of the article, and the guilty knowledge of the broker who sells it. In illustration of this, we may refer to the proceedings of the sanitary authorities of the city of London in their endeavour to suppress the importation and sale of spurious tea. In the month of March 1870, Dr Letheby, the food analyst for the city, reported that a large quantity of spurious tea had arrived in London from China, and was lodged in the bonded warehouses of the city. It was described as "Fine Moning Congou" from Shanghai; and it consisted of the redried leaves of exhausted tea, much of which had become putrid before drying. It appears to have been called in China "Ma-loo mixture"-Maloo being the name of the street where it was prepared, and along the sides of which heaps of this trash might often be seen drying in the sun, with dogs and pigs walking over it. Proceedings were taken under the Nuisance Removal Amendment Act (26 and 27 Vict. c. 117), for the purpose of obtaining an order for the condemnation and destruction of the tea; but it was argued for the defence-1st, That "tea" was not named in the Act of Parliament; 2d, That it was not included under the term "vegetable;" 3d, That it was not "food" and 4th, That being in a bonded warehouse, it was not "exposed for sale." The case, however, was so glaring that, after two days' hearing, an order was given by the justice for its destruction; but as a case was granted for the opinion of the Court of Queen's Bench, the order was suspended; and as the application to the Court was never made, the order is still in abeyance. In another case, where many chests of spurious "scented orange Pekoe siftings" were in bond, the order for its condemnation was refuted on the ground that there was not sufficient evidence of the so-called tea being unwholesome, notwithstanding that it was not above one-sixth its proper strength; that it had little or none of the active principles of tea; that it had an unpleasant odour and an acrid taste; that a great portion of it was not tea at all, and that the rest of it was composed of exhausted tea leaves, with just enough good tea to give it a flavour. A like failure of justice occurred in the city in 1866, when measures were taken by the sanitary authorities to prevent the sale of about 350,000 lbs. of rotten and charred tea which had been saved from a fire at Beal's wharf. The adulterations practised by the Chinese are numerous; exhausted tea is redried and glazed in a very deceptive manner. Millions of pounds of leaves of different plants, other than tea, are gathered and mixed with it. Mineral matter too, in the form of china clay, fine sand, and iron filings, are ingeniously incorporated with the leaf before curling, so that as much as from 20 to 40 per cent. of impurity is thus mixed with it. The tests, however, for these adulterations are very simple. In the first place, there is the usual trade test of infusion: a quantity of tea, amounting to the weight of a sixpence, is put into a small covered cup, and infused with about four ounces of boiling water for ten minutes. The infusion is then poured off from the leaves, and is examined for colour,

leaves, too, are examined for soundness, for colour, for size, and for special botanical properties. Impurities like iron filings, sand, or dirt, are easily seen among the leaves, or at the bottom of the cup; and when these are placed upon a coarse sieve and washed with water, the impurities pass through, and may be collected for examination. The leaves, too, betray by their coarseness and botanical characters, the nature and quality of the tea; for although the leaves of genuine tea differ much in size and form, yet their venation and general structure are very distinctive. Very young leaves are narrow, convoluted, and downy; those next in size and age have their edges delicately serrated, and the venation is scarcely perceptible; while those of larger size have the venation well marked, there being a series of loops along each side of the leaf extending from the mid-rib to the edge: the serrations also are stronger and deeper, beginning a short distance from the stem and running up the side of the leaf to the apex. In addition to this, the microscopic characters of the surface of the leaf are very characteristic. Further investigations of a chemical nature are sometimes needed to determine the question of adulteration; and these depend on the well-known composition of good tea. In different cases, according to the age of the leaf and its mode of treatment, the proportions of its chief constituents may vary; but in a general way it may be said that the average composition of tea is as follows:-Moisture from 6 to 10 per cent.; astringent matter (tannin), from 25 to 35; gum, from 6 to 7; albuminous matters, from 2 to 3; thein, from 2 to 3 mineral matters (ash), from 5 to 6; and ligneous or woody tissue, from 50 to 60 per cent. Green tea, which is generally made out of young leaves, contains the largest quantity of soluble matters; and these, when fully exhausted from the leaves by successive boiling in water, amount to from 25 to 35 per cent. of the weight of the tea. In ordinary cases, when the tea is merely infused in boiling water, it does not yield above 25 per cent. of extractive. Again, the ash of tea is very characteristic of its quality— old and spurious leaves, as well as tea adulterated with mineral matter, yielding more than 6 per cent. of ash. The chief constituents of the ash of good tea are potash and phosphoric acid, with a little lime, silica, and oxide of iron

there being but a trace of chlorine and sulphuric acid; whereas the ash of old and exhausted leaves contains but little potash and phosphoric acid, in proportion to the lime and silica; and in those cases where tea has been damaged by sea water, the amount of chloride is considerable. Iron filings in tea are easily discovered by means of a magnet, there being in some cases as much as 20 or 30 per cent. of this impurity. Even when incorporated with the leaf before rolling and glazing, the fraud is detected by the attraction of the tea to the magnet.

4. Cocoa in its natural state contains so much fatty matter (amounting to rather more than half its weight), that it has long been the practice to reduce it by means of sugar or farinaceous substances. The first of these preparations is called chocolate, and the latter is known by such names as granulated, flake, rock, soluble cocoa, &c. In some cases the mixture is adulterated with mineral matters, as oxide of iron, to give colour. These adulterations are recognised by the appearance and taste of the preparation, by its microscopic characters, by the colour and reaction of its solution, and by the proportions of fat and mineral matters in it.

5. Bread.-Especial care has been taken at all times to protect the public from the dishonest dealing of bakers. The assize of bread, for example, is a very ancient institution; for it was the subject of a proclamation in 1202, and it was the chief matter referred to in the notable statute of

the Pillory and Tumbrel (51 Henry III. stat. 16) already mentioned. In the city of London, according to "Liber Albus," the assize of bread was an important institution. It was always made immediately after the feast of St Michael in each year, and very specific instructions were given for the guidance of the four discreet men who were to perform it; for their decision regulated the business of the baker in respect of the price and quality of bread, &c., for the current year; and woe to him if he disregarded it— there being numerous instances in "Liber Albus" of the pillory and the thew in cases where bread had been found adulterated or of short weight. In the time of Anne, the assize of bread was still further regulated (8 Anne, c. 19), and in the year 1815 it was abolished by the statute 55 Geo. III. c. 99. Especial provision, however, was made to guard against the frauds of adulteration, for several Acts of Parliament, especially 31 Geo. II. c. 29 and 1 and 2 Geo. IV. c. 50, prohibited the use of alum and other spurious articles in bread under severe penalties. At the present time, the chief adulterations of bread are with alum or sulphate of copper for the purpose of giving solidity to the gluten of damaged or inferior flour, or with chalk or carbonate of soda to correct the acidity of such flour, or with boiled rice or potatoes to enable the bread to carry more water, and thus to produce a large number of loaves per sack of flour. In practice 100 lbs. of flour will make from 133 to 137 lbs. of bread, a good average being 136 lbs.; so that a sack of flour of 280 lbs. should yield 95 four-pound loaves. But the art of the baker is exercised to increase the number, and this is accomplished by hardening the gluten in the way already mentioned, or by means of a gummy mess of boiled rice, three or four pounds of which, when boiled for two or three hours in as many gallons of water, will make a sack of flour yield at least 100 four-pound loaves. Such bread, however, is always dropsical, and gets soft and sodden at the base on standing, and quickly becomes mouldy. A good loaf should have kindness of structure, being neither chaffy, nor flaky, nor crummy, nor sodden. It should also be sweet and agreeable to the palate and the nose, being neither sour nor mouldy. It should keep well, and be easily restored to freshness by heating it in a closed vessel. And a slice of it, subjected to a temperature of from 260° to 280° Fahr. should hardly be discoloured, and should not lose more than 37 or 38 per cent. of its weight. When steeped in water, it should give a milky sweet solution, and not a ropy acid liquid. The recognition of alum and sulphate of copper in bread requires practice and skilful manipulation, it being surrounded with difficulties. The most easily applied process is that described by Mr Horsley. He makes a tincture of logwood, by digesting a quarter of an ounce of the freshly cut chips in five ounces of methylated spirit for eight hours, and filters. A teaspoonful of this tincture is put with a like quantity of a saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia into a wine-glassful of water; and the mixed solutions, which are of a pink colour, are then poured into a white-ware plate or dish. A slice of the suspected bread is allowed to soak in it for five minutes, after which it is placed upon a clear plate to drain, and, if alum be present, it will, in the course of an hour or two, acquire a blue colour; if the tint be greenish, it is a sign of sulphate of copper; whereas pure bread gradually loses its pink colour, but never becomes blue or green. The ash of bread will also furnish evidences of the presence of mineral impurities.

6. Flour and other Farinaceous Matters.--The tests for good flour are its sweetness and freedom from acidity and musty flavour. A given weight of the flour, say 500 grains, made into a stiff dough with water, and then carefully kneaded under a small stream of water. will yield

a tough elastic gluten, which, when baked in an oven, expands into a clean-looking ball of a rich brown colour, that weighs, when perfectly dry, not less than 50 grains. Bad flour makes a ropy-looking gluten, which is very difficult of manipulation, and is of a dirty brown colour when baked. The ash of flour should not exceed 2 per cent. Other farinaceous matters are recognised under the microscope by the peculiar form, and size, and marking of the individual granules. In this way, the adulterations of oat-meal with barley-meal, and of arrow-root with inferior starches, may be easily detected.

7. Fatty Matters and Oils are the subjects of frequent adulteration. Butter and lard, for example, are mixed with inferior fats, and with water, salt, and farina. Most of these impurities are seen when the sample of butter or lard is melted in a glass, and allowed to stand in a warm place for a few hours, when the pure fat will float as a transparent oil, while the water, salt, farina, &c., will subside to the bottom of the glass. Fresh butter generally contains a notable quantity of water, as from 12 to 13 per cent., and sometimes a little salt, and a trace of curd; but these should never exceed two per cent. in the aggregate. Foreign fats are recognised by the granular look of the butter, by its gritty feel, by its taste, and by its odour when warmed. Other tests for these impurities are the melting-point of the sample, and its solubility in a fixed quantity of ether at a temperature of 65° Fahr. 20 grains of the sample, treated with a fluid drachm of ether, in a closed test tube, will look slighty flocculent, and be almost entirely dissolved in the case of good butter; but it will be mealy and liniment-like with lard, granular with dripping, and almost solid with mutton fat. The melting point of different fats is as follows:-Horse grease, 140°; calf fat, 136°; mutton fat, 130°; beef fat, 99°; hog's lard, 81°; and butter, 80°.

Oils are adulterated with inferior kinds, and the fraud is detected by means of the specific gravity of the oil, and its chemical reactions when tested upon a white plate with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid-the colour and its time of development being the indications of the quality of the oil. The specific gravity of the animal oils are as follows:-Neat's-foot oil, 880; tallow oil, 900; dolphin oil, 918; cod-liver oil, 921 to 926; whale oil, 927; seal oil, 934; porpoise oil, 937. Among the vegetable oils the following are the most important:-Rape or colza oil, 913 to 916; olive oil, 918; filbert oil, 916; beech-nut, 922; walnut, 923; cotton-seed, 923 to 928; poppy, 924; sweet almond, 918 to 922; hazel-nut and hemp-seed, 926; and linseed, 634 to 936.

8. Isinglass is often adulterated with gelatine, the fraud being ingeniously contrived so as to retain to a large extent the well-known characters of genuine isinglass; but it may be recognised in the following way: immersed in cold water, the shreds of genuine isinglass become white and opaque like cotton threads, and they swell equally in all directions, whereas those of gelatine become transparent and ribbonlike. Isinglass dissolves completely in boiling water, and makes a slightly turbid solution, which has a faint fishy smell, and is without action on litmus paper; whereas gelatine leaves a quantity of insoluble matter, and the solution smells of glue, and has an acid reaction. Strong acetic acid swells up the shreds of isinglass, and renders them soft and gelatinous; but it hardens gelatine. And, lastly, the ash of genuine isinglass is very small in quantity, and has a reddish colour; whereas that of gelatine is bulky (weighing from 2 to 3 per cent.), and has a perfectly white appearance from the presence of calcareous salts. Genuine isinglass is produced from the swimming-bladder or sound of the sturgeon, but gelatine is a sort of clarified glue obtained from bones, clippings of hides, &c. Boussingault states that the Bouxwiller glue. which is prepared from the

9. Sugar. During the last ten or twelve years the manufacture of sugar from starch has been an important branch of industry. The product is sent into commerce under the names of glucose, saccharum, and British sugar; and although it is chiefly used for brewing purposes, it is also employed for adulterating brown sugar, and for making confectionary, jams, marmalades, and fruit jellies. In the year 1870, as much as 25,737 cwt. of this sugar was manufactured for home consumption, and since then the quantity has been increasing. It is produced from rice or other starch, by submitting it to the action of very dilute sulphuric acid at a boiling temperature-the acid being afterwards neutralised with lime, and the solution evaporated to the setting point. The crystals of grape sugar are very small, and are entirely without that sparkling character which distinguishes cane sugar. They are less soluble in water, but more so in alcohol, than cane sugar, and they have only about one-third the sweetening power. Boiled with a solution of caustic potash, they quickly produce a deep brown liquid, and they have the power of reducing the hydrated oxide of copper, when heated therewith in an alkaline solution. These characters are distinctive of it, and will serve to recognise it in the brown sugars of

commerce.

10. Mustard is generally so acrid and powerful in its flavour that it is commonly diluted with flour, or other farinaceous matter, turmeric being added to improve its appearance. The mixture is recognised by means of the microscope, when the granules of starch and the colouring matters of turmeric are easily seen. Genuine mustard does not contain starch, and therefore does not become blue when it is treated with a solution of iodine.

11. Spices, as pepper, cinnamon, curry powder, ginger, cayenne, &c., are more or less the subjects of fraudulent adulteration, which can readily be detected by the microscope, and by an examination of the mineral constituents. Formerly, pepper was ground by the retail dealer, and then there was no excuse for the presence of adulterating agents; but in 1856, the wholesale dealer undertook the business of grinding, and from that time adulteration has been on the increase. In some cases, the article does not contain a trace of pepper, but is made up of gypsum, mustard husk, and a little starch. In the Ninth Report of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue, there is a statement by Mr Phillips, the chief chemist of the Excise, that he found a sample of so-called pepper containing 25 per cent. gypsum, the rest being mustard husks and a little cereal starch, without a trace of pepper. Another sample consisted of 16 per cent. gypsum, 44 mustard husks, a little cercal starch, and the rest pepper. Four other samples, closely resembling pepper, so as to deceive an inexperienced eye, were found to contain about 22 per cent. of gypsum, with sand, starch, and mustard husk. Linseed meal and powdered capsicums are likewise used for adulterating pepper. The chief sophistications of ginger powder are sago-meal, ground rice, and turmeric; while the colouring agents of curry powders and cayenne are ferruginous earths, brick dust, and even vermilion and red-lead. Spices, too, are sometimes exhausted of their active properties before they are ground and sold to the public.

12. Beer, Ale, and Porter.-The assize of ale is contemporaneous with that of bread, being described as the "Assisa Panis et Cervesiæ," in old documents. In the statute 51 Henry III. c. 16 (1266), they are spoken of as ancient and well-known institutions, the object of them being to regulate the quality and price of these articles.

were called "ale conners," or "ale tasters" (gustatores cervisia), and were elected annually in the court-leet of each manor, and in the city of London at the ward-mote, according to the advice and assent of the alderman and other reputable men of the ward. Very specific instructions are given in Liber Albus of the business of the brewer, and of the penalties for any default thereof it being ordained that no ale should be sold without having been tasted and approved by the ale conners of the district. Even now these officers are elected in the city of London with the old formalities, but the real duty of examining the quality of ale, beer, and porter has for many years been in the hands of the Excise. As far back as the time of Anne there was a law prohibiting the use of Cocculus indicus or any unwholesome ingredient in the brewing of beer, under severe penalties, the brewer being restricted to the use of malt and hops alone; but gradually, as the taste for porter came into fashion (since 1730), and during the French war, when the price of malt was very high, certain colouring matters prepared from burnt sugar were allowed to be used, and this at last became so necessary to the trade, that it was legalised by the Act 51 Geo. III. c. 51. Five years after, however, it was prohibited by the statute 56 Geo. III. c. 58, which declared that after the 5th of July 1817, no brewer, or dealer, or retailer of beer, shall receive, or use, or have in his possession or custody, any liquor, extract, or other material or preparation, for the purpose of darkening the colour of worts or beer, other than brown malt. He was also prohibited from using inolasses, honey, liquorice, vitriol, quassia, Cocculus indicus, grains of paradise, guinea pepper, or opium, or any extract or preparation of the same, or any substitute for malt or hops, under a penalty of £200; and no chemist or vendor of drugs was permitted to sell, send, or deliver any such things to a brewer or retailer of beer under a penalty of £500. Later still, in 1830, the Act for permitting the general sale of beer and cider by retail in England (1 Will. IV. c. 64), declares that if any person so licensed shall knowingly sell any beer, ale, or porter, made otherwise than from malt and hops, or shall mix, or cause to be admixed, any drugs or other pernicious ingredients with any beer sold in his house or premises, or shall fraudulently dilute or in any way adulterate any such beer, &c., shall for the first offence forfeit and pay a sum of from £10 to £20, and for the second offence shall be adjudged disqualified from selling beer, ale, or porter for two years, or forfeit a sum of from £20 to £50; and the same regulations applied to cider and perry. The execution of these acts rested with the Excise, and it would seem that three classes of adulterations were practised, namely, 1st, Those which gave fictitious strength to the beer, as Cocculus indicus, tobacco, opium, &c.; 2d, Those which improved the flavour and body of the beer, as grains of paradise, capsicum pods, ground ginger, coriander seeds, caraway seeds, sweet flag, liquorice, molasses, and salt; and, 3d, Those which gave bitterness, as quassia, chiretta, horehound, gentian, &c. In London the publicans were not in the habit of practising the first kind of adulteration, but confined themselves to the second and third. In the country, however, according to Mr Phillips, it was quite otherwise, especially with brewers who retailed their own beer; for he found that they frequently used tobacco and Cocculus indicus. He even thinks that the cases of brutal and purposeless violence which were so often recorded were referable to the maddening influence of these ingredients. By the Act 24 and 25 Vict. c. 22 (1863), when the duty on hops was relieved, these bitters and substitutes were permitted, and so also was sugar, provided the full duty of 12s. 8d. per cwt. was paid upon it. Later still, by the Licensing Act 1872 (35