and lord-lieutenant of Kinross-shire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, and in the following year was appointed chief commissioner of the newlyestablished Jury-Court for the trial of civil causes, over which he presided with much ability and acceptance till 1830, when it ceased to exist as a separate court, and became merged in the permanent supreme tribunal. Though little versed in the technicalities of law, he was in all practical matters an able manager; he was a shrewd observer of all that passed around him, and a most agreeable companion. He died at Edinburgh on the 17th February 1839.

ADAM'S BRIDGE, or Rama's Bridge, a chain of sandbanks, extending from the island of Manaar, near the N.W. coast of Ceylon to the island of Rameseram, off the Indian coast, and lying between the Gulf of Manaar on the S. W. and Palk Strait on the N.E. It is more than 30 miles long, and offers a serious impediment to navigation. Some of the sandbanks are dry; and no part of the shoal has a greater depth than 3 or 4 feet at high water, except three tortuous and intricate channels, a few feet deep, which in calm weather permit the passage of boats and small vessels. ADAM'S PEAK, a lofty mountain in Ceylon, about 45 miles E. from Colombo, in N. lat. 6° 55', E. long. 80° 30'. It rises steeply to a height of 7240 feet, and commands a magnificent prospect. Its conical summit terminates in an oblong platform, 74 feet by 24, on which there is a hollow, resembling the form of a human foot, 5 feet 4 inches by 2 feet 6 inches; and this has been consecrated as the footprint of Buddha. The margin of this supposed footprint is ornamented with gems, and a wooden canopy protects it from the weather. It is held in high veneration by the Cingalese, and numerous pilgrims ascend to the sacred spot, where a priest resides to receive their offerings, and bless them on their departure. By the Mahometans the impression is regarded as that of the foot of Adam, who here, according to their tradition, fulfilled a penance of one thousand years, while the Hindoos claim it as that of their god Siva.

ADAMAWA, a country of Central Africa, lies between 7° and 11° N. lat., and 11° and 16° E. long., about midway on the map between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. Its boundaries cannot be strictly defined; but it stretches from S.W. to N.E. a distance of 200 miles, with a width of from 70 to 80 miles. This region is watered by the Benuwe and the Faro. The former, which ultimately unites with the Niger, flows through Adamawa, first in a northerly, then in a westerly direction; and is joined by the Faro, which rises in the south, 22 miles from Yolla, the capital of the country. Near their confluence the Benuwe is 800 yards wide, with a depth of about 11 feet; the Faro has a breadth of 600 yards, but is generally very shallow. Both rivers are subject to extraordinary floods, beginning in the end of September, and lasting forty days, during which the swamps of the adjacent country are covered for a great distance on both sides, and the Benuwe rises at least 30 feet. The most fertile parts of the country are the plains near the Benuwe, about 800 feet above the level of the sea. Further from that river the land rises to an elevation of 1500 feet, and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of mountains. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles S.S.E. of Yolla, is the loftiest mountain in Adamawa, and rises from the plain, an isolated mass, to the height of 9000 feet. The country, which is exceedingly rich, and is covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages, and a considerable population. The grain known as Holcus sorghum or durra, ground-nuts, yams, and cotton are the principal products; and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are very numerous, and ivory is largely exported. In the eastern part of the country the rhino

ceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with crocodiles, and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing some resemblance to the seal. Yolla, the capital of Adamawa, is situated, in N. lat. 9° 28', E. long. 12° 13', in the fertile plain between the Benuwe and the Faro. The houses are built of clay, and surrounded by court-yards, in which grain is grown; so that the town, though containing only about 12,000 inhabitants, is spread over a large extent of ground, and is 3 miles long from east to west. Turkedi (a dark-coloured cotton cloth), beads, salt, and calico are the principal articies exposed in the markets. Here and throughout Adamawa cotton is generally used as a medium of barter. A very large proportion of the population are slaves, many private individuals holding as many as 1000, while the governor is said to receive annually about 5000 in tribute. The government of Adamawa is in the hands of a Mahometan ruler, who owns a nominal allegiance to the Sultan of Sokoto, but is in reality an independent sovereign. Formerly the country was called Fumbina, and was possessed by various African tribes, until it was overrun by the Fulbe, a Mahometan people. It has not been entirely subjected by them, but they have detached settlements at various places; and numerous governors, as well of the Fulbe as of outlying pagan tribes, are in subjection to the ruler of Yolla. (See Barth's Travels in Central Africa, vol. ii.)

ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished in North Africa in the 2d and 3d centuries. Basing itself probably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state of original innocency. They accordingly rejected the form of marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin, and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the Middle Ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not at first exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit, who in the 14th century were better known throughout Germany as Beghards. This name was originally borne by a religious party that was formed in the Netherlands a century earlier. The two sects came into contact on the Rhine frontier, associated with each other, gradually approximated in doctrine, and were at last identified by the application to both of the one name; though a distinct sect of Beghards, free from the excesses of the brethren, continued to exist in the Netherlands. Picard is simply another form which Beghard assumed in the harsh pronunciation of the Bohemians, and the common method of accounting for it by supposing a leader Picard has no sufficient warrant. The principal seat of the Picards in Bohemia was a small island in the river Luschnitz, where they lived in a state of nature, and had wives in common. In 1421 they were almost exterminated by Ziska, the leader of the Hussites, who committed many of them to the flames. In 1849 it appeared that the sect existed in a district of Austria, though small in number, and not ostentatious of its peculiar practices. (Rüdinger de Eccl. Frat. in Bohem., &c.; Bossuet's Variations of Protestant Churches.)

ADAMNAN or ADOMNAN, SAINT, born in Ireland about the year 624, was elected Abbot of Iona in 679, on the death of Failbhe. While on a mission to the court of King Aldfrid of Northumberland (700-1), he was led to adopt the Roman rule in regard to the time for the observance of Easter; and on his return to Iona he tried to enforce the change upon the monks, but without success. It is said that the disappointment caused his death, which occurred in 703 or 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of great interest and value. The best edition is that of Reeves,

published by the Irish Archæological and Celtic Society in 1857. Adamnan's other well-known work, De Situ Terræ Sanctie, was based, according to Bede, on information received from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was entertained for a time at Iona. This was first published by Gretser at Ingolstadt in 1619. (Kalendars of the Scottish Saints, by Bishop Forbes, 1872.) ADAMS, JOHN, a distinguished statesman of the United States of North America. He was born on the 19th or (new style) 30th of October 1735, in that part of the township of Braintree, in Massachusetts, which on a subsequent division was called Quincy. His parents were of that class, then abounding in New England, who united the profession of agriculture with that of some one of the mechanic arts. His ancestor Henry had emigrated from Devonshire in the year 1632, and had established himself at Braintree with six sons, all of whom married: from one descended the subject of this memoir, and from another that Samuel Adams who, with John Hancock, was by name proscribed by an Act of the British Parliament, for the conspicuous part he acted in the early stages of the opposition to the measures of the mother country. When about fifteen years of age, his father proposed to his son John either to follow the family pursuits, and to receive in due time, as his portion, a part of the estate which they had cultivated, or to have the expense of a learned education bestowed upon him, with which, instead of any fortune, he was to make his way in future life. The son chose the latter alternative; and having received some preparatory instruction, was admitted a student at Harvard College in the year 1751. After graduating in 1755, he removed to the town of Worcester, where, according to the economical practice of that day in New England, he became a tutor in a grammar school, and at the same time was initiated into the practice of the law in the office of Mr Putnam, then an attorney and a colonel of militia, and subsequently a general of some celebrity in the revolutionary war. A letter he wrote at the early age of nineteen, shows a degree of foresight which, like many other predictions, may have led to its own accomplishment. It is dated 12th October 1754, and says-"Soon after the Reformation, a few people came over to this New World for conscience' sake. Perhaps this apparently trivial incident may transfer the great seat of empire to America. It looks likely to me; for if we can remove the turbulent Gallic (the French in Canada), our people, according to the exactest computation, will in another century become more numerous than England itself. Should this be the case, since we have, I may say, all the naval stores of the nation in our hands, it will be easy to obtain the mastery of the seas, and then the united force of all Europe will not be able to subdue us. The only way to keep us from setting up for ourselves is to disunite us."

He was admitted to practice in the year 1758, and gradually rose to the degree of eminence which a local court can confer; and obtained distinction by some essays on the subject of the canon and feudal law, which were directed to point to the rising difference which commenced between the mother country and the colonies, soon after the peace of 1763 had delivered the latter from all disquietude respecting the establishments of France in the adjoining province of Canada. His character rose, both as a lawyer and a patriot, so as to induce Governor Barnard, who wished to gain him over to the royal party, to offer him the office of advocate-general in the Admiralty Court, which was deemed a sure step to the highest honours of the bench. Two years after, he was chosen one of the representatives of his native town to the congress of the province. His first prominent interference in political affairs was at a meeting at Braintree in 1765, to oppose the Stamp Act.

| The resolutions he proposed were not only carried unanimously, but were afterwards adopted verbatim by moro than forty other towns. In 1768 he found it necessary to remove to Boston, owing to the increase of his legal practice.

His professional integrity was soon after exhibited in the defence of Captain Preston and some soldiers, who were tried before a Boston jury on a charge of murder, April 1770. In this case Adams was counsel for the defence; and being considered by the people, then in an inflamed state against the troops, as a determined friend of liberty, his eloquence obtained a verdict of acquittal without lessening his popularity.

When it was determined, in 1774, to assemble a general congress from the several colonies, Mr Adams was one of those solicited for the purpose by the people of Massachusetts. Before departing for Philadelphia to join the congress, he parted with the friend of his youth, his fellowstudent and associate at the bar, Jonathan Sewall, who had attained the rank of attorney-general, and was necessarily opposed to his political views. Sewall made a powerful effort to change his determination, and to deter him from going to the congress. He urged, that Britain was determined on her system, and was irresistible, and would be destructive to him and all those who should persevere in opposition to her designs. To this Adams replied: "I know that Great Britain has determined on her system, and that very fact determines me on mine. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures; the die is now cast; I have passed the Rubicon; to swim or sink, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination." The conversation was then terminated by Adams saying to his friend, "I see we must part; and with a bleeding heart, I say, I fear for ever. But you may depend upon it, this adieu is the sharpest thorn on which I ever set my foot."

When the continental congress was assembled Mr Adams became one of its most active and energetic leaders. He was a member of that committee which framed the Declaration of Independence, and one of the most powerful advocates for its adoption by the general body; and by his eloquence obtained the unanimous suffrages of that assembly. Though he was appointed chief-justice in 1776, he declined the office, in order to dedicate his talents to the general purpose of the defence of the country.

In 1777 he, with three other members, was appointed a commissioner to France. He remained in Paris about a year and a half, when, in consequence of disagreements among themselves, in which Adams was not implicated, all but Franklin were recalled. In the end of 1779 he was charged with two commissions,-one as a plenipotentiary to treat for peace, the other empowering him to form a commercial treaty with Great Britain. When he arrived in Paris, the French Government viewed with jealousy the purpose of the second commission; and Count de Vergennes advised him to keep it secret, with a view to prevail on the congress to revoke it. Mr Adams refused to communicate to the count his instructions on that subject; and an altercation arose, from a claim made by France for a discrimination in favour of French holders of American paper money in the liquidation of it. The count complained to Congress, transmitted copies of Mr Adams's letters, and instructed the French minister at Philadelphia to demand his recall. The demand was rejected, but afterwards four others were joined with him in the commission. Whilst these negotiations were in progress he went to Holland, and there, in opposition to the influence and talents of the British minister, Sir Joseph Yorke, succeeded both in negotiating a loan, and in procuring the assistance of that country in the defence against Great Britain. He formed a commercial treaty with

In 1785 Mr Adams was appointed ambassador to the court of his former sovereign, where his conduct was such as to secure the approbation of his own country, and the respect of that to which he was commissioned. Whilst in London, he published his work entitled Defence of the American Constitution, in which he combated ably the opinions of Turgot, Mably, and Price, in favour of a single legislative assembly; and thus perhaps contributed to the division of power and the checks on its exercise, which became established in the United States. At the close of 1787 he returned, after ten years devoted to the public service, to America. He received the thanks of Congress, and was elected soon after, under the presidency of Washington, to the office of Vice-President. In 1790 Mr Adams gave to the public his Discourses on Davila, in which he exposed the revolutionary doctrines propagated by France and her emissaries in other countries. On the retirement of Washington, the choice of President fell on Mr Adams, who entered on that office in May 1797. At that time the Government was entangled by the insolent pretensions of the French demagogues, and by their partisans in many of the states. Great differences of opinion arose between the individuals at the head of affairs: one party, with Mr Hamilton at their head, was disposed to resist the pretensions of France by open hostilities; whilst Mr Adams was disinclined to war, so long as there was a possibility of avoiding it with honour. Owing to this division of his own friends, rather than to a want of public confidence, at the conclusion of the four years for which the President is chosen, Mr Adams was not re-elected. Perhaps this was in some measure owing to the preponderance of the slave states, in which Mr Jefferson, his rival, and a proprietor of slaves, had a fellow-feeling among the chief of the people.

He retired with dignity, at 65 years of age, to his native place, formed no political factions against those in power, but publicly expressed his approbation of the measures which were pursued by him who had been his rival, who had become his successor in power, but had never ceased to be his firmly-attached friend.

The last public occasion on which Mr Adams appeared, was as a member of the convention for the revision of the constitution of Massachusetts, in which some slight alterations were requisite, in consequence of the province of Maine being separated from it.

He seems to have enjoyed his mental faculties to the close of his protracted life; and even on the last day of it, two hours only before its final close, on the 4th July 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Act of Independence, he dictated to a friend, as a sentiment to be given at the public dinner of the day, "Independence for ever." By a very singular coincidence Jefferson, his rival and friend, died a few hours earlier on the same day.

Mr Adams was considered a sound scholar, well versed in the ancient languages, and in many branches of general literature. His style in writing was forcible and perspicuous, and, in the latter years of his life, remarkably elegant. In person he was of middling stature; his manners spoke the courtesy of the old school; and his address, at least when he was in England, was dignified and manly.

ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY, eldest son of the preceding, was born at Braintree on the 11th July 1767. The greater part of his education was received in Europe, which he visited in company with his father in 1778, and again in 1780, when he attended for a time the university of Leyden. When only fifteen years old he went, as secretary, with Francis Dana on his unsuccessful mission to St Petersburg. Returning home after an interval spent in Holland, London, and Paris, he graduated at Harvard in

was admitted to the bar in 1791. Three successive series of letters, on political subjects, contributed to a Boston newspaper, attracted much attention, and Washington appointed him ambassador to the Hague in 1794. An appointment to a similar post in Portugal, made just before the expiry of Washington's presidency, was set aside by his father, who sent him instead to Prussia, giving him the promotion by the express advice of Washington. During his residence as ambassador at Berlin, he succeeded in negotiating a commercial treaty with Prussia. On Jefferson becoming President (1801), Adams was recalled, and resumed the practice of law in Boston. In 1802 Suffolk county returned him a member of the Massachusetts Senate, and in the following year he was elected to Congress. Indebted for his position to the Federal party, Adams supported their views for four years, but separated from them by voting for Jefferson's proposed embargo. This course involved him in much controversy, and cost | him his seat in the Senate. During his retirement he added to the employment arising from his profession the duties of the professorship of rhetoric and belles lettres at Harvard University, which he held for three years (1806-9). His lectures-the first ever read in an American university-were published in 1810, and were much thought of at the time, though now almost forgotten. In the winter following the resignation of his professorship, he visited Washington; and, in an interview with Jefferson, brought a charge against some of the Federal leaders of a design to dissolve the union, and form a separate confederation for the north. The charge was afterwards repeated in the newspapers; and, though resting on slender grounds, greatly affected the confidence of the other states in the New England representatives. In 1809 Madison, having obtained after some delay the concurrence of the Senate, entrusted Adams with the embassy to St Petersburg,—an appointment which the latter accepted against the wishes of his father, and continued to hold, though offered a seat on the judicial bench of New England some time after his arrival in Russia. When war broke out between England and the United States, Adams induced the Czar to make an offer of intervention, which, however, the English Government declined to accept. Independent negotiations were thereupon carried on for six months at Ghent (the representatives of America being Adams, Russell, and Clay), and resulted in the treaty of peace which was signed 24th December 1814. After serving for two years (1815-17) as minister in London, he again entered the arena of home politics as secretary of state under Monroe. In this office he distinguished himself specially by his arrangement of the treaty with Spain, which defined the boundaries of the ceded territories of Florida and Louisiana. An elaborate report on weights and measures gained for him also a name for scientific acquirements. In 1825 the election of a President fell, according to the constitution of the States, to the House of Representatives, since no one of the candidates had secured an absolute majority of the clectors chosen by the States, and Adams, who had stood second to Jackson in the electoral vote, was chosen in preference to Jackson, Clay, and Crawford. The administration of Adams was marked by the imposition of a high tariff on foreign goods, with the view of promoting internal industry, and by the unsuccessful attempt to purchase Cuba from Spain. Notwithstanding the efforts of Clay, and the special claim he himself made on the voters of Virginia on account of his discovery of the so-called New England "plot" twenty years before, Adams failed to secure his re-election in 1829. Defeated by Jackson, who had 178 votes to his 83, he retired o Quincy, where his father's fortune, increased by his own efforts, afforded

him an ample competency. Two years later he was returned to Congress by the district in which he lived, and which he continued to represent until his death. Having been chosen merely on account of his determined resistance to secret societies, his position was independent of party politics, and correspondingly strong. He stood for the office of governor, and then for that of senator, of Massachusetts, but was on both occasions defeated by Davis. As chairman of the committee on manufactures, he strove to devise a middle policy in regard to tariffs, but his greatest effort at this period-perhaps the greatest service of his whole political life-was in connection with the abolition of slavery. In every form which the question took, he was the bold and determined advocate of abolition, gradually gathering an influential party around him, and so preparing for the triumphs, most of which have been won since his death. He himself witnessed, in 1845, the abolition of the "gag-rule," restricting the right of petition to Congress on the subject of slavery, which he had persistently opposed during the nine years it was in force. He died of paralysis on 23d February 1818, having been seized two days previously while attending the debates of Congress. Adams wrote a number of works, which are now of little importance. The style is fluent, but has none of the vigour and elegance of his father's. During his whole lifetime he kept a very voluminous journal, some portions of which have been published.

ADAMS, RICHARD, M.A., divine. Two contemporaries of the same name are frequently confounded with each other. The more eminent was son of the Rev. Richard Adams, rector of Worrall, in Cheshire. The family records seven clergymen of the Church of England in succession. The present worthy was born at Worrall, but the loss of the registers leaves the date uncertain. It is usually, but erroneously, stated, that he studied at Cambridge University. He was admitted a student of Brazenose College, Oxford, March 24, 1646, and became a fellow, having proceeded through the usual degrees. It was at Brazenose he formed his life-long friendship with John Howe, who had a profound veneration for Adams. In 1655 he was appointed to the rectory of St Mildred's, Bread Street, London-John Milton being a parishioner. From this he was ejected by the Act of Uniformity of 1662. Thereupon he continued his ministry as opportunity offered, and at length was settled as pastor of a congregation in Southwark. This Richard Adams is a typical example of the consistent and meek labourers of the early and struggling period of Nonconformity. His holy and beautiful life inspired Howe's noblest eloquence in his funeral sermon. He died in a ripe old age, on 7th Feb. 1698. His principal literary work is his contribution of annotations on Philippians and Colossians to Pool's celebrated Annotations. Along with (A. B. G.)

Veal he edited the works of Charnock.

ADAMS, SAMUEL, American statesman, born at Boston, Sept. 27, 1722, was second cousin to John Adams. He studied at Harvard, but, owing to his father's misfortunes in business in connection with a banking speculation, the "manufactory scheme," he had to leave before completing his course, and to relinquish his intention of becoming a Congregational clergyman. He received his degree, however, and it is worthy of note, as showing the tendency of his political opinions, that his thesis was a defence of the affirmative reply to the question, "Whether it be lawful to resist the supreme magistrate, if the commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved?" The failure of the banking scheme above referred to, in consequence of the limitations imposed by English law, made Adams still more decided in his assertion of the rights of American citizens, and in his opposition to Parliament. He gave up his business, in which he had little success, and became tax

collector for the city of Boston, whence he was called by his political opponents," Samuel the publican." In all the proceedings which issued at last in the declaration of independence Adams was a conspicuous actor. He took part in the numerous town meetings, drafted the protest which was sent up by Boston against the taxation scheme of Grenville (May 1764); and, being chosen next year a member of the general court of Massachusetts, soon became one of the leaders in debate. Upon his entry into the House he was appointed clerk, and had thus much influence in arranging the order of business and in drawing up papers. Attempts were more than once made by the English governor to win him over by the offer of a place, but Adams proved inflexible. His uncompromising resistance to the British Government continued; he was a prominent member of the continental Congress at Philadelphia, and was one of those who signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. He was a member of the convention which settled the constitution of Massachusetts, and became president of its Senate. From 1789 to 1794 he was lieutenant-governor of the State, and governor from 1794 to 1797, retiring in the latter year partly on account of age, but partly also because the Federalists were then in the ascendant, and he himself was inclined to the Jefferson or Republican party. He died on the 3d Oct. 1803. In an oration on American independence, delivered in Philadelphia, 1st Aug. 1776, Adams characterises the English as "a nation of shopkeepers." The oration was translated into French, and published at Paris; and it is therefore not unlikely that Napoleon's use of this phrase was not original.

ADAMS, THOMAS-"the prose Shakspeare of Puritan theologians," as Southey named him-has left as few personal memorials behind him as the poet himself. The only facts regarding the commonplaces of his biography are furnished by epistles-dedicatory and epistles to the reader, and titlepages. From these we learn that he was, in 1612, "a preacher of the gospel at Willington," in Bedfordshire, where he is found on to 1614, and whence issued his Heaven and Earth Reconciled, The Devil's Banquet, and other works; that in 1614-15 he was at Wingrave, in Buckinghamshire, probably as vicar, and whence a number of his works went forth in quick succession; that in 1618 he held the preachership at St Gregory's, under St Paul's Cathedral, and was "observant chaplain" to Sir Henrie Montague, the Lord Chief-Justice of England; that during these years his epistles show him to have been on the most friendly terms with some of the foremost men in state and church; and that he must have died before the Restoration of 1660. His "occasionally" printed sermons, in small quartos, when collected in 1630, placed him beyond all comparison in the van of the preachers of England. Jeremy Taylor does not surpass him in brilliance of fancies, nor Thomas Fuller in wit. His numerous works display great learning, classical and patristic, and are unique in their abundance of stories, anecdotes, aphorisms, and puns. He was a Puritan in the church, in distinction from the Nonconformist Puritans, and is evangelically, not drydoctrinally, Calvinistic in his theology. His works have been recently collected by Drs Joseph Angus and Thomas Smith (3 vols. 8vo, 1862). (A. B. G.)

ADAMSON, PATRICK, a Scottish prelate, Archbishop of St Andrews, was born in the year 1543, in the town of Perth, where he received the rudiments of his education. He afterwards studied philosophy, and took his degree of master of arts at the University of St Andrews. In 1564 he set out for Paris as tutor to the eldest son of Sir William Macgill. In the month of June of the same year, Mary Queen of Scots being delivered of a son, afterwards James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, Mr Adamson