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Here again the two steps in the process of translation were taken in one portentous stride. There was no intelligent effort to find out first what the writer meant to say, and then how we should say that thing in terms of today—two quite distinct steps, absolutely requiring solution of the one problem, before the other is attempted.

The first problem is, of course, how to grasp the thoughtunits of the original, just as they stand. For any serious change of order may blunt the main point, and sharpen the less important, while even minor changes tend to confusion, or at best to unwarranted alterations in the scale of emphasis. The original order should never be deserted, even for the moment. Thus each unit must yield its meaning, if only in a provisional way, before one ventures to go on to the next. The second step must not be thought of at present. For, obviously enough, we can not select the proper English phrase, or construct a lucid English clause, still less an entire sentence, until the successive ideas presented by the original have been duly digested.

For the all-important first step, the extraction of clear-cut thoughts from certain blocks of words standing in a given order in a foreign language, every translator is obliged to develop more or less consciously no less than four special senses. And it is most essential that these be set to work in a fixt and uniform order.

First to be trained upon the word-groups is the grammatical sense-not a deep interest in the problems of grammar, but an acquired knack of recognizing groups of words, as revealed by inflections, prepositions, and tell-tale conjunctions. Until this first sense has completed its task, there should be no conscious thought of particular words or meanings. That is, the preposition is not consciously accounted a word, but all of a piece with the word or words which it accompanies. And the conjunction is for the moment thought of as merely introducing a certain type of clause, whose precise function it may not be necessary to define at once, but only later in retrospect. In such ways the group makes at first only a collective impression. And the wary refrain most carefully

from dashing in at once to translate those multiple conjunctions, ut, cum, and the rest, or even the relative pronoun, knowing that the chances of error are very large. This need of discretion the writer has elsewhere endeavored to emphasize:

On the street at dusk we often pass some one who looks familiar. We look hard at him, but only after he has past and we have had time to collect our thoughts do we feel sure who it was. So with the words which introduce the dependent clauses of a Latin sentence. You have no certain clue to their identity until you are some distance away. It is most embarrassing to call them by the wrong name. There remains but one course: never speak to ut or ne, cum or dum, quod and the rest as you pass them in the twilight!1

The grammatical sense must first of all do its work with a limited group of words, before there is any distinct consciousness of the meaning of the words individually considered.

This done, the second, or lexical sense is now brought into action. It is based upon memory of the meanings of words and word-combinations, with some knowledge of the leading principles of word-formation, permitting inferences as to formations which appear at first blush new, but in reality contain familiar material. The lexical sense is, of course, more or less dependent upon information to be freshly sought in lexicon or vocabulary. Too often this sense receives little training that could be called methodical, and is thus forced to feel its way blindly, recognizing perhaps the first syllable or two of a word, and rashly ignoring the remainder, upon which alone depends our hope of differentiating words which closely resemble each other in outward appearance such groups, for example, as aura, aurum, auris or clava, clavus, clavis, where confusion seems to be the habitual state of the student mind. He has been content to make a wild guess, or to look up in his vocabulary that particular one of these words which occurs in today's lesson. Tomorrow he will repeat the same mechanical process, and never face the problem of drawing sharp lines of distinction, to be stored away in memory for

1 Porta Latina, Ginn & Co., p. xviii.

future reference, as can be so easily done, with the help in part of the corresponding French words, or by a mnemonic device.

Next in order, in the reduction of a given word-group, a third sense is called into play. This sense has to do with rhetoric, which does not mean a mastery of all the figures and the endless terminology of the Greeks. It does mean quickness to observe the emphasis of word-order, the high relief of contrasts, and other familiar devices by which clearness or force is given to the expression of a thought, including the simpler figures. Many a dismal failure to comprehend the main thought of a sentence is due to the reluctance of teachers to recognize the importance of rhetoric, and to make clear to their pupils that grammatical literalness is distinctly a vice, if attained only by overlooking the lights and shades of rhetorical relief. It would seem sufficiently plain that a rhetorical sense is no less vital than a grammatical.

Finally, when the group of words in question has been surveyed in turn by each of the three powers of observation of which we have been speaking, it must be closely inspected by the fourth sense, the logical power of inference. And this must combine into one product the different impressions conveyed to the mind by the other three, to give us a clear idea of the meaning of the word-group as a whole.

By these four steps, then, the first of the two processes in translation, that is to say, apprehension, is now complete for one group of words. But before passing to the second process, expression, or translation proper, the next word-group is to be attacked in the same way as before, each of the four special senses having its part to play. Every temptation to take the leap before the look, to attempt to express what is still imperfectly apprehended, should be carefully avoided. It is only when we have handled each group separately, and have in this strategic advance at length reached the end of the sentence, that we are really prepared to translate at all.

The problem of apt expression in English is then taken up for the sentence as a whole. Of this second and quite independent process little need be said here, not that it is less

important, but as belonging to a wider field, that of English composition in general. Here every intelligent teacher is assumed to be aware of the need of incessant vigilance and daily practise. For, naturally enough, even the most clearly apprehended thoughts can not find their way of themselves into language equally clear and precise. And yet much more than half the battle has been won, if it has come to be the pupil's fixt habit to look first for sharp outlines of thought. He has by that time banished the bugbear of a one and only correct translation, be it Bohn's or the teacher's, and is prepared to reproduce the ideas of the original in brief abstract, or again in ampler form, even before he has worked out a finished version.

Of course, this method, based upon phrase and clauseunits, meets the instant objection that, on first reading over a Latin sentence, a student often fails to mark off such units in his mind, seeing nothing but words, and finding his way slowly to a tentative and often incorrect grouping. But this is merely to admit one of the saddest defects of our elementary training. Not to see the woods for the trees, not to see the group for the words which compose it, suggests the need of looking well to the use we are making of our vision. Such myopia can surely be corrected, and by grammatical glasses too. But this can be done only by directing a large proportion of our grammar questions to the one end of recognition and identification of these larger units—an aim of infinitely more utility than the labelling and pigeon-holing of syntactical specimens.

Present failure in all these three directions is largely due to a depressing sense of wasted effort, of a desperately slow advance, even with the best intentions, since energies are so often dissipated. They are too commonly spent upon everything but the one essential-the power to read intelligently and appreciatively, without wild guessing on the one hand, or hair-splitting on the other, not to mention all the intermediate forms of wasted effort.

FRANK G. MOORE

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

VII

SEX IN MIND AND IN EDUCATION (I)

[The following article by Dr. Henry Maudsley, eminent alike as physician and physiologist, made a great impression on the reading public of England and America when it first appeared in the Fortnightly Review for April, 1874. It was reprinted and given wide circulation by Mr. C. W. Bardeen of Syracuse, N. Y., in his Series of School Room Classics, and is here reproduced with his permission. EDITOR.]

Those who view without prejudice, or with some sympathy, the movements for improving the higher education of women, and for throwing open to them fields of activity from which they are now excluded, have a hard matter of it sometimes to prevent a feeling of reaction being aroused in their minds by the arguments of the most eager of those who advocate the reform. Carried away by their zeal into an enthusiasm which borders on or reaches fanaticism, they seem positively to ignore the fact that there are significant differences between the sexes, arguing in effect as if it were nothing more than an affair of clothes, and to be resolved, in their indignation at woman's wrongs, to refuse her the simple rights of her sex. They would do better in the end if they would begin by realizing the fact that the male organization is one, and the female organization another, and that, let come what may in the way of assimilation of female and male education and labor, it will not be possible to transform a woman into a man. To the end of the chapter she will retain her special functions, and must have a special sphere of development and activity determined by the performance of those functions.

It is quite evident that many of those who are foremost in their zeal for raising the education and social status of woman, have not given proper consideration to the nature of her organization, and to the demands which its special func

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