The inference from the established sinfulness of the Gentile world, Paul does not draw, until he has substantiated the same charge against the Jews. He then says, since all are sinners before God, no flesh can be justified by the works of the law, ch. 3: 20.

COMMENTARY.

(18) For the wrath of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness, and unrighteousness of men, &c. The connexion of this verse with the preceding, and consequently the force of the particle for, will be perceived, if it is remembered that Paul had just asserted, that those only who were just by faith, could live; in other words, that no righteousness but that which is of God by faith, can avail to the justification of men. The reason is assigned in this verse; God is just. Men must be justified by faith, for the wrath of God is revealed, &c. The wrath of God means his disapprobation of sin and his determination to punish it. The passion which is called anger or wrath, and which is always mixed more or less with malignity in the human breast, is, of course, infinitely removed from what the word imports when used in reference to God. Yet as anger in men leads to the infliction of evil on its object, the word is, agreeable to a principle which pervades the Scriptures, applied to the calm and undeviating purpose of the divine Mind, which secures the connexion between sin and misery, with the same general uniformity that any other law in the physical or moral government of God operates. This wrath is revealed from heaven, that is, it is clearly revealed; made known from heaven, where God dwells, and whence all manifestations of his character are said to proceed. This revelation is from heaven, as the lightning is, which forces itself on the most reluctant vision. Paul assumes that God's punitive justice forces itself on the knowledge and conviction of every sinner. He, therefore, neither tells us how it is manifested, nor does he attempt to prove that such is the fact. It is one of those obvious and ultimate truths which, existing in every man's consciousness, may safely be assumed as both known and admitted.

Against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men. Although the words ungodliness and unrighteousness are often used indiscriminately, they are not to be considered in this case as synonymous, because Paul distinctly proves that the Gentiles are chargeable both with impiety and immorality, in the ordinary acceptation of these terms. These two allcomprehensive classes of sins are declared to be the objects of the divine displeasure.

Who hold the truth in unrighteousness. The word truth is here variously explained. It is obviously inconsistent with the context to understand it of the gospel, as though the apostle meant to denounce judgment on those who opposed the gospel. The word is used with considerable latitude in the Scriptures. It is often used for true religion, including both its doctrines, John 8: 32. Rom. 2: 20. 2 Cor. 4: 2, &c.

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&c., and its duties, John 3: 21. 1 John 1: 6, "who do not the truth," &c. Such is probably its meaning here. The word rendered to hold, in the sense of having in possession, is so used in 1 Cor. 7: 30. 15: 2. Luke 8:15, &c. If this sense be adopted here, the word truth must be understood objectively, for the true doctrine; and in unrighteousness should be rendered with unrighteousness. The meaning of the clause would then be, who have the truth with unrighteousness,' i. e. although possessed of the truth are still unrighteous. See James 2: 1, for a precisely similar expression, "my brethren, have not the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ, with respect of persons,” i. e. do not, if believers, cherish a respect of persons. As, however, the word also means to hold back, to hinder, and then to impede; it may be so understood here, and the clause be rendered who oppose the truth by unrighteousness;' or better, who wickedly oppose the truth,' i. e. religion. The latter interpretation is the simpler of the two, but the former is sustained, in some measure, by a comparison with v. 21, in which men are represented as knowing God, i. e. having the truth, and yet acting wickedly.

(19) Because that which may be known of God is manifest in them, &c. The apostle's object being to prove that the Gentiles are justly chargeable with impiety, he commences by showing that they have not the excuse of ignorance, since all men have enjoyed a competent revelation of the divine character. This he introduces naturally by means of the associating idea contained in the last clause of v. 18, men are wicked in their opposition to the truth since they have a revelation sufficient to render them inexcusable.' That which may be known. Such is the common and proper meaning of the word here used, and which suits well the context. It is, therefore, to be preferred to another rendering, which is also philologically correct, according to which the word means knowledge, the knowledge of God is revealed,' &c. The words translated in them may be rendered to them, or among them. The first is to be preferred, as it is more natural and more forcible. It is not an external revelation, merely, of which the apostle is speaking, but of that witness of the existence and perfections of God, also, which every man has in the constitution of his own nature; and in virtue of which alone he is competent to appreciate the manifestations of God in his works. For God hath showed it unto them. The knowledge in question is a revelation. It is a manifestation of God in them and to them. The revelation to which Paul specially refers is that which is made in the external world, and for the right apprehension of which God has fashioned our

nature.

(20) For the invisible things of him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even his eternal power and Godhead, &c. This verse is a confirmation and illustration of the preceding. The knowledge of which Paul speaks relates to the invisible things of God; that is, to his eternal power and Godhead. These things, Paul says, are seen, though invisible, by their manifesta

tion in the external world. This manifestation is perpetual and universal. It is from the creation of the world. These words may indeed be rendered by the creation, &c., but not consistently with the latter part of the verse; nor do they, when thus rendered, give so pertinent a sense. These invisible things are seen, being understood; that is, it is a mental vision of which Paul speaks. The eye of sense sees nothing but the external object, the mind sees mind; and mind possessed not of human power and perfections, but of eternal power and divinity. The word rendered divinity means the divine majesty and excellence, and therefore includes all the perfections of God. These perfections are manifested by the things which are made; so the word here used properly means, see Eph. 2: 10; but it may also mean works generally. Being understood by his works,' would then include the dispensations of his providence, as well as the products of his hands. The common version, however, is more natural and appropriate. So that they are without excuse. These words are by many considered as depending on the last clause of v. 19, God hath showed it unto them, so that they are without excuse.' The former part of this verse is thus thrown into a parenthesis. The sense remains the same. God has so manifested himself in his works as to render the impiety, and especially the idolatry, of men inexcusable. It is not necessary to maintain that this revelation is competent to supply all the knowledge which a sinner needs. It is enough that it renders men inexcusable; and as it is that by which they are to be judged, ch. 2: 14, 15; if it be disregarded, it renders their condemnation as just, although not so severe, as the condemnation of those who disregard the clearer light of the gospel. The sentiment of this verse occurs in Acts 14: 17, "Nevertheless, he left not himself without a witness, in that he did good, and gave us rain from heaven, filling our hearts with food and gladness."

(21) Because that, when they knew God, they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful, &c. That men are justly chargeable with impiety, Paul proves, because they had a competent knowledge of God, but did not act agreeably to it. When they knew means either having the opportunity of knowing, or actually possessing this knowledge. The latter is probably the apostle's meaning. God has revealed himself in the constitution of human nature, and in his works, to all men. This revelation is indeed greatly and generally neglected; and other and delusive guides followed, so that the heathen are commonly ignorant of what it teaches. In like manner the Bible is neglected, and those to whom it is sent, disregarding its directions, follow those who teach for doctrines the commandments of men. In both cases, however, there is knowledge presented, and a revelation made; and in both ignorance is without excuse. As there is no apology for the impiety of the heathen to be found in any unavoidable ignorance of God, their idolatry is the fruit of depravity. The apostle, therefore, says when they knew God they glorified him not as God, neither were thankful. These two ex

pressions include every act of worship. The former refers to the recognition of all the divine perfections, the latter to the acknowledgment of God as the source of all good. To regard God as possessed of all excellence, and as the giver of all good, is true piety.

Instead of thus rendering unto God the homage and gratitude which are his due, they became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. They became vain,' i. e. foolish, senseless, devoid of true wisdom. "In their imaginations," or opinions. The word here used often occurs in a bad sense, 2 Cor. 10: 5. Prov. 6: 18. Jer. 11: 19. And, in this case, it is the foolish and wicked opinions respecting divine things into which the heathen were sunk, that are intended.

Their foolish heart was darkened. Their soul lost all right apprehensions of the divine character and perfections, and they were, hence, able to worship, as gods, birds, beasts, and creeping things,' Foolish means both senseless and wicked, see v. 31, and ch. 10: 19. Throughout the Scriptures the ideas of wickedness and folly, of wisdom and piety are intimately related. In scriptural language a fool is a wicked man, the wise are the pious; foolishness is sin, and wisdom is piety. "Wisdom is the principal thing; therefore get wisdom, and with all thy getting, get understanding."-Prov. 4: 7. 3: 13, 35, &c. &c. The vanity, therefore, of which the apostle speaks, as consequent on the loss of the knowledge of God, is not mere folly; it expresses the whole moral character of the heathen. Men cannot be such fools without being wicked: comp. ep. 4: 17. 1 Pet. 1: 18.

The word heart is used in this passage, and frequently elsewhere, for the whole soul. Men "understand with the heart," Matt. 13: 15; they "believe with the heart," Rom. 10: 10; "the heart is enlightened with knowledge," 2 Cor. 4: 6, &c. The Scriptures do not make the broad distinction between the intellectual and moral faculties, which philosophers have adopted. As they speak of the heart as the source of purely intellectual exercises, so they use the word understanding or mind for the seat of the affections.

(22) Professing themselves to be wise, they become fools. The word translated professing, means either simply affirming, saying, Acts 25: 19, or boasting, pretending to be. The latter is its meaning here. While making the highest pretensions to wisdom, they exhibited the greatest folly.' The evidence and illustration of this remark follows in the next verse. That rational creatures, instead of reverencing the God who reveals himself in all his works, should worship creatures inferior to themselves, even brute beasts, and offensive reptiles, is the most humbling and melancholy evidence of the imbecility and ruin of our race. It is to be remarked, also, that the higher the advancement of the nations in refinement and philosophy, the greater, as a general rule, the degradation and folly of their systems of religion. Witness the state of opinion and practice on this subject among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, in comparison with the simpler faith of earlier nations, or of the abori

gines of America. The further men have departed from the teachings or divine revelation, however made, and the more they have relied on their own understanding, the more deplorably besotted and foolish have they become. And it matters little under what external circumstances this departure is made, the result is always the same. In the midst of all the light of modern science, and of the reflection from the word of God which illuminates the whole atmosphere, the modern materialists of France, and pantheistical idealists of Germany, while professing themselves to be wise, have become fools, as conspicuously and as fully as any of the ancient deniers of the only living and true God; and for the very same reason: they do not like to retain God in their knowledge.' (23) And changed the glory of the uncorruptible God into an image made like unto corruptible man, &c. Herein consisted their amazing folly, that they should worship the lowest of his creatures instead of the glorious Creator. The glory of the incorruptible God is equivalent to the glorious in corruptible God. The phrase rendered change the glory into, &c. may more correctly be rendered exchanged the glory for, &c. They exchange the glorious God for senseless idols.' Compare Ps. 106: 20, which may be translated, they exchanged their glory for the similitude of an ox that eateth grass;' Jer. 2: 11, "my people have changed their glory for that which doth not profit;" Hosea 4:7. Greater folly than this exchange of the living and glorious God for the mere image of birds, beasts, and reptiles, the world has never seen. That the heathen really worshipped such objects is well known. Philo says that the whole land of Egypt was covered with temples and groves, dedicated to dogs, wolves, lions, land and water animals, crocodiles, birds, &c. With regard to the vast majority of the people, the homage terminated on the animal or the idol; and the case was but little better with the pantheistical refiners and defenders of this system, who professed to worship the great and universal divine principle, in these particular manifestations. Why should the higher manifestation of God in the human soul, do homage to the lower development of the universal principle in a reptile? We never find the sacred writers making any account of this common subterfuge and apology for idolatry. All who bowed down before a stock or stone, they denounced as worshipping gods which their own hands had made, which had eyes but saw not, ears but heard not, and hands that could not save.

The universal idolatry of the heathen world, committed under a degree of light which rendered it inexcusable, is the evidence which Paul adduces to prove that they are "ungodly," and consequently exposed to the wrath of God. In the passage which follows, from v. 24 to the end of the chapter, he designs to show that the Gentiles are not only ungodly but unrighteous. He traces their immorality to their impiety.

(24) Wherefore God also gave them up to uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts, &c. They having abandoned God, he abandoned them. He not only permitted them to take their course, but he judicially, that is, as a punishment, withdrew and withheld the restraints of his pro