of Avalon, with the eternal sunset lingering behind the flowering
apple trees, and gleaming on the fountain of forgetfulness. In
Scotland the channering worm doth chide even the souls that
come from where, "beside the gate of Paradise, the birk grows
fair enough." The Romaic idea of the place of the dead, the
garden of Charon, whence "neither in spring or summer, nor
when grapes are gleaned in autumn, can warrior or maiden
escape,"
," is likewise pre-Christian. In Provençal and Danish
folk-song, the cries of children ill-treated by a cruel step-mother
awaken the departed mother,-

the league, the league, but barely three," of Scottish ballads; | do the sad-hearted people think of the land of death as an island and the Tpià Touλakiά, three golden birds, which sing the prelude to Greek folk songs, and so on. A more curious note of primitive poetry is the lavish and reckless use of gold and silver. H. F. Tozer, in his account of ballads in the Highlands of Turkey, remarks on this fact, and attributes it to Eastern influences. But the horses' shoes of silver, the knives of fine gold, the talking "birds with gold on their wings," as in Aristophanes, are common to all folk-song. Everything almost is gold in the Kalewala (q.v.), a so-called epic formed by putting into juxtaposition all the popular songs of Finland. Gold is used as freely in the ballads, real or spurious, which M. Verkovitch has had collected in the wilds of Mount Rhodope. The Captain in the French song is as lavish in his treatment of his runaway bride,

"Son amant l'habille,

Tout en or et argent ";

and the rustic in a song from Poitou talks of his faucille d'or, just as a variant of Hugh of Lincoln introduces gold chairs and tables. Again, when the lover, in a ballad common to France and to Scotland, cuts the winding-sheet from about his living bride-" il tira ses ciseaux d'or fin." If the horses of the Klephts in Romaic ballads are gold shod, the steed in Willie's Lady is no less splendidly accoutred,

"Silver shod before,

And gowden shod behind."

Readers of Homer, and of the Chanson de Roland, must have observed the same primitive luxury of gold in these early epics, in Homer reflecting perhaps the radiance of the actual "golden Mycenae."

Next as to talking-birds. These are not so common as in Märchen, but still are very general, and cause no surprise to their human listeners. The omniscient popinjay, who " up and spoke" in the Border minstrelsy, is of the same family of birds as those that, according to Talvj, pervade Servian song; as the Tρià Touλaxiá which introduce the story in the Romaic ballads; as the wise birds whose speech is still understood by exceptionally gifted Zulus; as the wicked dove that whispers temptation in the sweet French folk-song; as the "bird that came out of a bush, on water for to dine," in the Water o' Wearies

Well.

"'Twas cold at night and the bairnies grat,

The mother below the mouls heard that."

She reappears in her old home, and henceforth, "when dogs
howl in the night, the step-mother trembles, and is kind to the
children." To this identity of superstition we may add the
less tangible fact of identity of tone. The ballads of Klephtic
exploits in Greece match the Border songs of Dick of the Cow
and Kinmont Willie. The same simple delight of living animates
the short Greek Scolia and their counterparts in France.
Everywhere in these happier climes, as in southern Italy, there
are snatches of popular verse that make but one song of rose trees,
and apple blossom, and the nightingale that sings for maidens
loverless,-
Il ne chante pas pour moi,
J'en ai un, Dieu merci,"

says the gay French refrain.

between the different folk-songs of Europe; but enough has, It would not be difficult to multiply instances of resemblance perhaps, been said to support the position that some of them are popular and primitive in the same sense as Märchen. They are composed by peoples of an early stage who find, in a natural improvisation, a natural utterance of modulated and rhythmic speech, the appropriate relief of their emotions, in moments of high-wrought feeling or on solemn occasions.

Poesie" (as Puttenham well says in his Art of English Poesie, 1589) "is more ancient than the artificiall of the Greeks and Latines, and used of the savage and uncivill, who were before all science and civilitie. This is proved by certificate of merchants and travellers, who by late navigations have surveyed In the matter of identity of plot and incident in the ballads the whole world, and discovered large countries, and wild people of various lands, it is to be regretted that no such comparative strange and savage, affirming that the American, the Perusine, tables exist as Von Hahn tried, not very exhaustively, to make and the very Canniball do sing and also say their highest and of the "story-roots" of Märchen. Such tables might be comholiest matters in certain riming versicles." In the same way piled from the learned notes and introductions of Prof. Child Aristotle, discoursing of the origin of poetry, says (Poet. c. iv.), to his English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1898). A common ἐγέννησαν τὴν ποίησιν ἐκ τῶν αὐτοσχεδιασμάτων. Μ. de la plot is the story of the faithful leman, whose lord brings home Villemarqué in Brittany, M. Pitré in Italy, Herr Ulrich in "a braw new bride," and who recovers his affection at the eleventh Greece, have described the process of improvisation, how it hour. In Scotland this is the ballad of Lord Thomas and Fair grows out of the custom of dancing in large bands and accom"If the people," Annie; in Danish it is Skiaen Anna. It occurs twice in M.panying the figure of the dance with song. Fauriel's collection of Romaic songs. Again, there is the says M. Pitré," find out who is the composer of a canzone, they familiar ballad about a girl who pretends to be dead, that she will not sing it." Now in those lands where a blithe peasant life may be borne on a bier to meet her lover. This occurs not only still exists with its dances, like the kolos of Russia, we find in Scotland, but in the popular songs of Provence (collected by out of oral tradition in these islands. It is natural to conclude ballads identical in many respects with those which have died Damase Arbaud) and in those of Metz (Puymaigre), and in both countries an incongruous sequel tells how the lover tried to murder that originally some of the British ballads too were first improhis bride, and how she was too cunning, and drowned him. vised, and circulated in rustic dances. We learn from M. Another familiar feature is the bush and briar, or the two rose Bujeaud and M. de Puymaigre in France, that all ballads there trees, which meet and plait over the graves of unhappy lovers, have their air or tune, and that every dance has its own words, so that all passers-by see them, and say in the Provençal,-for if a new dance comes in, perhaps a fashionable one from "Diou ague l'amo Paris, words are fitted to it. Is there any trace of such an operatic, lyrical, dancing peasantry in austere Scotland? We find it in Gawin Douglas's account of

Des paures amourous."

Another example of a very widespread theme brings us to the ideas of the state of the dead revealed in folk-songs. The Night Journey, in M. Fauriel's Romaic collection, tells how a dead brother, wakened from his sleep of death by the longing of love, bore his living sister on his saddle-bow, in one night, from Bagdad to Constantinople. In Scotland this is the story of Proud Lady Margaret; in Germany it is the song which Bürger converted into Lenore; in Denmark it is Aagé und Elsé; in Brittany the dead foster-brother carries his sister to the apple close of the Celtic paradise (Barzaz Breiz). Only in Brittany

"Sic as we clepe wenches and damosels, In gersy greens, wandering by spring wells, Of bloomed branches, and flowers white and red, Plettand their lusty chaplets for their head, Some sang ring-sangs, dances, ledes, and rounds." Now, ring-sangs are ballads, dancing songs; and Young Tamlane, for instance, was doubtless once danced to, as we know it possessed an appropriate air. Again, Fabyan, the chronicler (quoted by Ritson) says that the song of triumph over Edward II., "was after many days sung in dances, to the carols of the

maidens and minstrels of Scotland." We might quote the
Complaynt of Scotland to the same effect. "The shepherds,
and their wyvis sang mony other melodi sangs, . . . than efter
this sueit celestial harmony, tha began to dance in ane ring."
It is natural to conjecture that, if we find identical ballads in
Scotland, and in Greece and Italy, and traces of identical
customs-customs crushed by the Reformation, by Puritanism,
by modern so-called civilization,-the ballads sprang out of the
institution of dances, as they still do in warmer and pleasanter
climates. It may be supposed that legends on which the ballads
are composed, being found as they are from the White Sea to
Cape Matapan, are part of the stock of primitive folk-lore.
Thus we have an immemorial antiquity for the legends, and for
the lyrical choruses in which their musical rendering was impro-
vised. We are still at a loss to discover the possibly mythological
germs of the legends; but, at all events, some ballads may be
claimed as distinctly popular, and, so to speak, impersonal in
matter and in origin. It would be easy to show that survivals
out of this stage of inartistic lyric poetry linger in the early epic
poetry of Homer and in the French épopées, and that the Greck
drama sprang from the sacred choruses of village vintagers.
In the great early epics, as in popular ballads, there is the same
directness and simplicity, the same use of recurring epithets,
the "
green grass," the "salt sea," the "shadowy hills," the
same repetition of speeches and something of the same barbaric
profusion in the use of gold and silver. But these resemblances
must not lead us into the mistake of supposing Homer to be a
collection of ballads, or that he can be properly translated into
ballad metre. The Iliad and the Odyssey are the highest form
of an artistic epic, not composed by piecing together ballads,
but developed by a long series of noble docol, for the benefit
of the great houses which entertain them, out of the method and
materials of popular song.

We have here spoken mainly of romantic ballads, which retain
in the refrain a vestige of the custom of singing and dancing;
of a period when "dance, song and poetry itself began with a
communal consent "
(Gummere, The Beginnings of Poetry,
p. 93, 1901). The custom by which a singer in a dancing-circle
chants a few words, the dancers chiming in with the refrain, is
found by M. Junod among the tribes of Delagoa Bay (Junod,
Chantes et contes des Ba Ronga, 1897). Other instances are the
Australian song-dances (Siebert, in Howitt's Native Tribes of
South-East Australia, Appendix 1904; and Dennett, Folk-Lore
of the Fiort). We must not infer that even among the aborigines
of Australia song is entirely "communal." Known men,
inspired, they say, in dreams, or by the All Father, devise new
forms of song with dance, which are carried all over the country;
and Mr Howitt gives a few examples of individual lyric. The
history of the much exaggerated opinion that a whole people,
as a people, composed its own ballads is traced by Prof. Gummere
in The Beginnings of Poetry, pp. 116-163. Some British ballads
retain traces of the early dance-song, and most are so far "com-
munal" in that, as they stand, they have been modified and
interpolated by many reciters in various ages, and finally (in
The Border Minstrelsy) by Sir Walter Scott, and by hands
much weaker than his (see The Young Tamlane). There are cases
in which the matter of a ballad has been derived by a popular
singer from medieval literary romance (as in the Arthurian
ballads), while the author of the romance again usually borrowed,
like Homer in the Odyssey, from popular Märchen of dateless
antiquity. It would be an error to suppose that most romantic
folk-songs are vulgarizations of literary romance-a view to
which Mr Courthope, in his History of English Poetry, and
Mr Henderson in The Border Minstrelsy (1902), incline-and the
opposite error would be to hold that this process of borrowing
from and vulgarization of literary medieval romance never
occurred. A good illustration of the true state of the case will
be found in Child's introduction to the ballad of Young Beichan.
Gaston Paris, a great authority, holds that early popular
poetry is
'improvised and contemporary with its facts
(Histoire poetique de Charlemagne). If this dictum be applied
to such ballads as "The Bonny Earl o' Murray," "Kinmont

Willie," "Jamie Telfer " and " Jock o' the Side," it must appear that the contemporary poets often knew little of the events and knew that little wrong. We gather the true facts from contemporary letters and despatches. In the ballads the facts are confused and distorted to such a degree that we must suppose them to have been composed in a later generation on the basis of erroneous oral tradition; or, as in the case of The Queen's Marie, to have been later defaced by the fantastic interpolations of reciters. To prove this it is only necessary to compare the historical Border ballads (especially those of 1595-1600) with Bain's Border Papers (1894-1896). Even down to 1750, the | ballads on Rob Roy's sons are more or less mythopoeic. It seems probable that the existing form of most of our border ballads is not earlier than the generation of 1603-1633, after the union of the crowns. Even when the ballads have been taken from recitation, the reciter has sometimes been inspired by a "stall copy," or printed broadsheet.

AUTHORITIES.-The indispensable book for the student of ballads is Child's English and Scottish Popular Ballads, published in 18971898 (Boston, U.S.A.). Professor Child unfortunately died without in his introductions, which have never been analysed. He did not summing up his ideas in a separate essay, and they must be sought give much attention to such materials for the study of ancient poetry as exist copiously in anthropological treatises. In knowledge of the ballads of all European peoples he was unrivalled, and his bibliography of collections of ballads contains some four hundred titles, (Child, vol. v.. pp. 455-468). The most copious ballad makers have been the Scots and English, the German,, Slavic, Danish, French and Italian peoples; for the Gaelic there is but one entry, Campbell of Islay's Lea har na Feinne (London, 1872). The general bibliography occupies over sixty pages, and to this the reader must be referred, while Prof. Gummere's book, The Beginnings of Poetry, is an adequate introduction to the literature, mainly continental, of the ballad question, which has received but scanty attention in England. For the relation of ballad to epic there is no better guide than Comparetti's The Kalewala, of which there is an English translation. For purely literary purposes the best collection of ballads is Scott's Border Minstrelsy in any complete edition. The best critical modern edition is that of Mr T. F. Henderson; his theory of ballad origins is not that which may be gathered from (A. L.) Professor Child's introductions.

BALLANCE, JOHN (1839-1893), New Zealand statesman, eldest son of Samuel Ballance, farmer, of Glenavy, Antrim, Ulster, was born on the 27th of March 1839. He was educated at a national school, and, on leaving, was apprenticed to an ironmonger at Belfast. He became a clerk in a wholesale ironmonger's house in Birmingham, and migrated to New Zealand, intending to start in business there as a small jeweller. After settling at Wanganui, however, he took an opportunity, soon offered, of founding a newspaper, the Wanganui Herald, of which he became editor and remained chief owner for the rest of his life. During the fighting with the Maori chief Titokowaru, in 1867, Ballance was concerned in the raising of a troop of volunteer horse, in which he received a commission. Of this he was deprived owing to the appearance in his newspaper of articles criticizing the management of the campaign. He had, however, behaved well in the field, and, in spite of his dismissal, was awarded the New Zealand war medal. He entered the colony's parliament in 1875 and, with one interval (1881-1884), sat there till his death. Ballance was a member of three ministries, that of Sir George Grey (1877-1879); that of Sir Robert Stout (18841887); and that of which he himself was premier (1891-1893). His alliance with Grey ended with a notorious and very painful quarrel. In the Stout government his portfolios were those of lands and native affairs; but it was at the treasury that his prudent and successful finance made the chief mark. As native minister his policy was pacific and humane, and in his last years he contrived to adjust equitably certain long-standing difficulties relating to reserved lands on the west coast of the North Island. He was resolutely opposed to the sale of crown lands for cash, and advocated with effect their disposal by perpetual lease. His system of state-aided "village settlements," by which small farms were allotted to peasants holding by lease from the crown, and money lent them to make a beginning of building and cultivation, has been on the whole successful. To Ballance, also, was due the law reducing the life-tenure of legislative councillors

eyes of Hébal the whole epic of humanity cannot be reproduced in
language trammelled by time and space. Scattered throughout the
works of Ballanche are many valuable ideas on the connexion of
events which makes possible a philosophy of history; but his own
theory does not seem likely to find more favour than it has already
received. Besides the Palingénésie, Ballanche wrote a poem on the
siege at Lyons (unpublished); Du sentiment considéré dans la
litterature et dans les arts (1801); Antigone, a prose poem (1814):
Essai sur les institutions sociales (1818), intended as a prelude to
his great work; Le Vieillard et le jeune homme, a philosophical
dialogue (1819); L'Homme sans nom, a novel (1820).
See Ampère, Ballanche (Paris, 1848); Ste Beuve, Portraits
contemporains, vol. ii.; Damiron, Philosophie de XIX siècle;
Eugène Blum, "Essai sur Ballanche" (in Critique Philos., 30th
June 1887); Gaston Frainnet, Essai sur la philos de P. S. Bollanche
(Paris, 1903, containing unpublished letters, portraits and full
bibliography); C. Huit, La Vie et les œuvres de Ballanche (1904).
An admirable analysis of the works composing the Palingénésie is
given by Barchou, Revue des deux mondes (1831), t. 2. pp. 410-456.

BALLANTINE, WILLIAM (1812-1887), English serjeant-atlaw, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1812, being the son of a London police-magistrate. He was educated at St Paul's school, and called to the bar in 1834. He began in early life a varied acquaintance with dramatic and literary society, and his experience, combined with his own pushing character and acute intellect, helped to obtain for him very soon a large practice, particularly in criminal cases. He became known as a formidable cross-examiner, his great rival being Serjeant Parry (1816-1880). The three great cases of his career were his successful prosecution of the murderer Franz Müller in 1864, his skilful defence of the Tichborne claimant in 1871 and his defence of the gaekwar of Baroda in 1875, his fee in this last case being one of the largest ever known. Ballantine became a serjeant-at-law in 1856. He died at Margate on the 9th of January 1887, having previously published more than one volume of reminiscences. Serjeant Ballantine's private life was decidedly Bohemian; and though he earned large sums, he died very poor.

to one of seven years. He was actively concerned in the advocacy, gives few intelligible hints. The sudden flash which disclosed to the of woman suffrage. But his best known achievement was the imposition, in 1891, of the progressive land-tax and progressive income-tax still levied in the colony. As premier he brought together the strong experimental and progressive party which long held office in New Zealand. In office he showed debating power, constructive skill and tact in managing men; but in 1893, at the height of his success and popularity, he died at Wellington of an intestinal disease after a severe surgical operation. Quiet and unassuming in manner, Ballance, who was a well-read man, always seemed fonder of his books and his chessboard than of public bustle; yet his loss to New Zealand political life was great. A statue was erected to his memory in front of Parliament House, Wellington. (W. P. R.) BALLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON (1776-1847), French philosopher of the theocratic school, was born at Lyons. Naturally delicate and highly-strung, he was profoundly stirred by the horrors of the siege of Lyons. His sensitiveness received a second blow in an unsuccessful love affair, which, however, he bore with fortitude. He devoted himself to an examination of the nature of society and his work brought him into connexion with the literary circle of Châteaubriand and Madame Récamier. His great work is the Palingénésic, which is divided into three parts, L'orphée, La formule, La ville des expiations. The first deals with the prehistoric period of the world, before the rise of religion; the second was to be an endeavour to deduce a universal law from known historical facts; the third to sketch the ultimate state of perfection to which humanity is moving. Of these the first alone was completed, but fragments of the other parts exist. Perhaps the most valuable part of the work is the general introduction. His last work, Vision d'Hébal, intended as part of the Ville des expiations, describes the chief of a Scottish clan, who, gifted with second sight, gives semi-prophetic utterances as to the course of world-history. In 1841 Ballanche was elected a member of the French Academy. He died in 1847. A collected edition of his works in nine volumes was begun in 1830. Four only appeared. In 1833 a second edition in six volumes was published. As a man, Ballanche was warm-hearted and enthusiastic, but he was endowed with a too-vivid imagina-years in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company. He returned tion and his strange thoughts are expressed in equally bizarre language. To give a connected account of his views is difficult; their full development should be studied in relation with his life-history, the stages of which are curiously parallel to his theory of the progress of man, the fall, the trial, the perfection. As has been said, he belonged to the theocratic school, who, in opposition to the rationalism of the preceding age, emphasized the principle of authority, placing revelation above individual reason, order above freedom and progress. But Ballanche made a sincere endeavour to unite in one system what was valuable in the opposed modes of thinking. He held with the theocratists that individualism was an impracticable view; man, according to him, exists only in and through society. He agreed further with them that the origin of society was to be explained, not by human desire and efforts, but by a direct revelation from God. Lastly, with De Bonald, he reduced the problem of the origin of society to that of the origin of language, and held that language was a divine gift. But at this point he parts company with the theocratists, and in this very revelation of language finds a germ of progress. Originally, in the primitive state of man, speech and thought are identical; but gradually the two separate; language is no longer only spoken, it is also written and finally is printed. Thus the primitive unity is broken up; the original social order which co-existed with, and was dependent on it, breaks up also. New institutions spring up, upon which thought acts, and in and through which it even draws nearer to a final unity, a palingenesis. The volition of primitive man was one with that of God but it becomes broken up into separate volitions which oppose themselves to the divine will, and through the oppositions and trials of this world work onward to a second and completer harmony. Humanity, therefore, passes through three stages, the fall from perfection, the period of trial and the final re-birth or return to perfection. In the dim records of mythical times may be traced the obscure outlines of primitive society and of its fall. Actual history exhibits the conflict of two great principles, which may be said to be realized in the patricians and plebeians of Rome. Such a distinction of caste is regarded by Ballanche as the original state of historical society; and history, as a whole, he considers to have followed the same course as that taken by the Roman plebs in its attempts to attain equality with the patriciate. On the events through which the human race is to achieve its destiny Ballanche

BALLANTYNE, ROBERT MICHAEL (1825-1894), Scottish writer of fiction, was born at Edinburgh on the 24th of April 1825, and came of the same family as the famous printers and publishers. When sixteen years of age he went to Canada and was for six

to Scotland in 1847, and next year published his first book, Hudson's Bay: or, Life in the Wilds of North America. For some time he was employed by Messrs Constable, the publishers, but in 1856 he gave up business for the profession of literature, and began the series of excellent stories of adventure for the young with which his name is popularly associated. The Young Fur-Traders (1856), The Coral Island (1857), The World of Ice (1859), Ungava: a Tale of Eskimo Land (1857), The Dog Crusoe (1860), The Lighthouse (1865), Deep Down (1868), The Pirate City (1874), Erling the Bold (1869), The Settler and the Savage (1877), and other books, to the number of upwards of a hundred, followed in regular succession, his rule being in every case to write as far as possible from personal knowledge of the scenes he described. His stories had the merit of being thoroughly healthy in tone and possessed considerable graphic force. Ballantyne was also no mean artist, and exhibited some of his water-colours at the Royal Scottish Academy. He lived in later years at Harrow, and died on the 8th of February 1894, at Rome, where he had gone to attempt to shake off the results of overwork. He wrote a volume of Personal Reminiscences of Book-making (1893)

BALLARAT (BALLAARAT] and BALLARAT EAST, a city and a town of Grenville county, Victoria, Australia, 74 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. The city and Ballarat East, separated only by the Yarrowce Creek, are distinct municipalities. Pop. of Ballarat (1901) 25.448, of Ballarat East, 18,262. Ballarat is the second city and the chief gold-mining centre of the state. The alluvial gold-fields were the richest ever opened up, but as these deposits have become exhausted the quartz reefs at deep levels have been exploited, and several mines are worked at depths exceeding 2000 ft. The city is the seat of Anglican and Roman Catholic bishops. It has a number of admirable public buildings, while, among several parks and recreation grounds, mention must be made of the fine botanical garden, 750 acres in extent,

should be connected with the story but is more commonly incidental. The French word was found to be so comprehensive as to require further definition, and thus the above-described would be distinguished as the ballet d'action or pantomime ballet, while a single scene, such as that of a village festival with its dances, would now be termed a divertissement

The ballet d'action, to which the changed meaning of the word is to be ascribed, and therewith the introduction of modern ballet, has been generally attributed to the 15th century. Novelty of entertainment was then sought for in the splendid courts of Italy, in order to celebrate events which were thought great in their time, such as the marriages of princes, or the triumphs of their arms. Invention was on the rack for novelty, and the skill of the machinist was taxed to the utmost. It has been supposed that the art of the old Roman pantomimi was then revived, to add to the attractions of court-dances. Under the Roman empire the pantomimi had represented either a mythological story, or perhaps a scene from a Greek tragedy, by mute gestures, while a chorus, ballast-placed in the background, sang cantica to narrate the fable, or to describe the action of the scene. The question is whether mute pantomimic action, which is the essence of modern ballet, was carried through those court entertainments, in which kings, queens, princes and princesses, took parts with the courtiers; or whether it is of later growth, and derived from professional dances upon the stage. The former is the general opinion, but the court entertainments of Italy and France were masques or masks which included declamation and song, like those of Ben Jonson with Inigo Jones for the court of James I.

BALLIA, a town and district of British India, in the Benares, division of the United Provinces. The town is situated on the left bank of the Ganges, below the confluence of the lesser Sarju. It is really an aggregation of rural villages. Pop. (1901) 15,278. The district of Ballia, constituted in 1879, occupies an angle at the junction of the Gogra with the Ganges, being bordered by two districts of Behar. It contains an area of 1245 sq. m. Owing to the great pressure on the soil from the density of the population, to the reluctance to part with land characteristic of small proprietors, to the generally great productiveness of land and to the very light assessment of government revenue, land in Ballia, for agricultural purposes merely, has a market value higher than in almost any other district. It commonly brings in Rs. 200 per bigha, or £20 per acre, and sometimes double that figure. In 1901 the population was 987,768, showing a decrease of 5% in the decade. The principal crops are rice, barley, other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. There are practically no manufactures, except that of sugar. Trade is carried on largely by way of the two bordering rivers. BALLINA, a scaport and market-town of county Mayo, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the left bank of the river Moy, with a station on the Killala branch of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4505. Across the river, and therefore in county Sligo, is the suburb of Ardnaree, connected with Ballina by two bridges. In Ardnaree is the Roman Catholic cathedral (diocese of Killala), with an east window of Munich glass, and the ruins of an Augustinian abbey (1427) adjoining. There is a Roman Catholic diocesan college and the Protestant parish church is also in Ardnaree. A convent was erected in 1867. In trade and population Ballina is the first town in the county. The salmonfishery and fish-curing are important branches of its trade; and it has also breweries and flour-mills and manufactures snuff and coarse linen. On the 25th of August 1798, Ballina was entered by the French under General Humbert, marching from their landing-place at Killala. In the neighbourhood there is the interesting cromlech of the four Maels, which, if actually erected over the criminals whose name it bears, is proved by the carly annals of Ireland to belong to the 7th century A.D. Their story relates that these men, foster-brothers of Cellach, bishop of Kilmore-Moy, murdered him at the instigation of Guaire Aidhne, king of Connaught, but were themselves executed at Ardnare (Ard-na-riaghadh, the hill of the executions) by the bishop's brother. The Moy is a notable salmon river for rodfishing and its tributaries and the neighbouring lakes contain trout.

essence of Noverre's theory was that mere display was not enough | Salisbury cathedral, where it is mixed with the tooth ornament. to ensure interest and life for the ballet; and some years ago Sir It seems to have been used more and more frequently, till at Augustus Harris expressed a similar opinion when he was asked Gloucester cathedral, in the south side, it is in profusion. wherein lay the reason of the decadence of the modern ballet. Noverre brought to a high degree of perfection the art of presenting a story by means of pantomime, and he never allowed dancing which was not the direct expression of a particular attitude of mind. Apart from Noverre, the greatest ballet-master was undoubtedly Gaetano Apolline Balthazare Vestris (q.v.), who modestly called himself le dieu de la danse, and was, indeed, the finest male dancer that Europe ever produced. Gluck composed Iphigénie en Aulide in conjunction with Vestris. In 1750 the two greatest dancers of the day performed together in Paris in a ballet-opera called Léandre et Héro; the dancers were Vestris and Madame Camargo (q.v.), who introduced short skirts in the ballet. The word "balette" was first used in the English language by Dryden in 1667, and the first descriptive ballet seen in London was The Tavern Bilkers, which was played at Drury Lane in 1702. Since then the ballet in England has been purely exotic and has merely followed on the lines of French developments. The palmy days of the ballet in England were in the first half of the 19th century, when a royal revenue was spent on the maintenance of this fashionable attraction. Some famous dancers of this period were Carlotta Grisi, Mdlle Taglioni (who is said to have turned the heads of an entire generation), Fanny Elssler, Mdlle Cerito, Miss P. Horton, Miss Lucile Grahn and Mdlle Carolina Rosati. In later years Kate Vaughan was a remarkably graceful dancer of a new type in England, and, in Sir Augustus Harris's opinion, she did much to elevate the modern art. She was the first to make skirt-dancing popular, although that achievement will not be regarded as an unmixed benefit by every student of the art. Skirt-dancing, in itself a beautiful exhibition, is a departure from true dancing in the sense that the steps are of little importance in it; and we have seen its development extend to a mere exhibition of whirling draperies under many-coloured lime-lights. The best known of Miss Vaughan's disciples and imitators (each of whom has contributed something to the art on her own account) were Miss Sylvia Grey and Miss Letty Lind. Of the older and classical school of ballet-dancing Adeline Genée became in London the finest exponent. But ballet-dancing, affected by a tendency in modern entertainment to make less and less demands on the intelligence and intellectual appreciation of the public, and more and more demands on the eye-the sense most easily affected-has gradually developed into a spectacle, the chief interest of which is quite independent of dancing. Thousands of pounds are spent on dressing a small army of women who do little but march about the stage and group themselves in accordance with some design of colour and mass; and no more is asked of the intelligence than to believe that a ballet dressed, for example, in military uniform is a compliment to or glorification of the army. Only a few out of hundreds of members of the corps de ballet are really dancers and they perform against a background of colour afforded by the majority. It seems unlikely that we shall see any revival of the best period and styles of dancing until a higher standard of grace and manners becomes fashionable in society. With the constantly increasing abolition of ceremony, courtliness of manner is bound to diminish; and only in an atmosphere of ceremony, courtesy and chivalry can the dance maintain itself in perfection.

LITERATURE. One of the most complete books on the ballet is by the Jesuit, Claude François Menestrier, Des ballets anciens et modernes. 12mo (1682). He was the inventor of a ballet for Louis XIV. in 1658; and in his book he analyses about fifty of the early Italian and French ballets. See also Noverre, Lettres sur la danse (1760; new ed. 1804); Castel-Blaze, La Danse et les ballets (1832), and Les Origines de l'opéra (1869).

BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament in the form of a ball inserted in the cup of a flower, which came into use in the latter part of the 13th, and was in great vogue in the early part of the 14th century. It is generally placed in rows at equal distances in the hollow of a moulding, frequently by the sides of mullions. The earliest known is said to be in the west part of

BALLINASLOE, a market town of county Galway, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, 91 m. W. of Dublin, on the Midland Great Western main line. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4904. The river Suck, an affluent of the Shannon, divides it into two parts, of which the castern was in county Roscommon until 1898. The town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan date. Industries include brewing, flour-milling, tanning, hatmaking and carriage-building. Trade is assisted by watercommunication through the Grand canal to the Shannon. The town is widely celebrated for its great annual cattle-fair held in October, at which vast numbers of cattle and sheep are offered for sale. Adjoining the town is Garbally Castle, the seat of the earl of Clancarty, into the demesne of which the great fair extends from the town.

BALLISTICS (from the Gr. Båλλe, to throw), the science of throwing warlike missiles or projectiles. It is now divided into two parts:-Exterior Ballistics, in which the motion of the projectile is considered after it has received its initial impulse, when the projectile is moving freely under the influence of gravity and the resistance of the air, and it is required to determine the circumstances so as to hit a certain object, with a view to its destruction or perforation; and Interior Ballistics, in which the pressure of the powder-gas is analysed in the bore