heavens, the more the number of the | the heavens in general are not even stars seems to increase, but we now in the richest portions of the Milky know that there is a limit to this in- Way-nearly so rich in stars as the crease of telescopic vision. And the globular clusters. The fact of these evidence clearly shows that we are rapclusters being remarkable objects idly approaching this limit. Although proves that they are unusually rich in the number of stars visible in the stars, and there is strong evidence Pleiades at first rapidly increases with evidence amounting to absolute proof an increase in the size of the telescope in the case of the globular clusters used, and although photography has that these clusters of stars are really largely increased the number of stars in and not apparently close, that they are this remarkable cluster, it has recently actually systems of suns, and fill a combeen found that an increased length of paratively limited volume in space. exposure — beyond three hours adds We cannot then estimate the probable very few stars to the number visible on number of the visible stars by counting the photograph taken at the Paris Ob-those visible in one of these globular servatory in 1885, on which over two clusters. We must draw our concluthousand stars can be counted. Even sions from other portions of the sky. with this large number on so limited On a photograph of a rich spot in the an area, vacant spaces of considerable constellation Cygnus, taken by Dr. extent are visible between the stars, Roberts in August, 1887, in that lumiand a glance at the original photograph nous region of the Milky Way which is sufficient to show that there would lies between Gamma and Beta Cygni, be ample room for many times the no less than 16,206 stars have been number actually visible. counted on a space of four square degrees. On this beautiful photograph a paper print of which, kindly presented to me by Dr. Roberts, lies before me as I write - the stars, although thickly strewn, have numerous and comparatively large blank spaces between them, and "the dark background of the heavens" is very conspicuous even in this rich region. A glance at this photograph shows that there would be ample room for at least ten times the number of stars actually visible. The same fact is evident on the beautiful photographs of various portions of the heavens taken by the brothers Henry at the Paris Observatory. The number of stars visible on Dr. Roberts's photograph gives a total of one hundred and sixty-seven millions for the whole sky, but as the region in question is evidently a very rich one, this number is too large to be taken as an average, the stars in many other regious being much more thinly scattered. Even for the stars visible on the Paris photograph of the Pleiades, I find that were the whole sky as thickly strewn with stars as this cluster, the total number would be only thirty-three millions, or less than the present population of France. Taking On the photograph of the great globular cluster Omega Centauri recently taken in Peru with a telescope of thirteen inches aperture, the individual stars composing this superb cluster can be distinctly seen and counted, although to the eye it seems to be a mass of "innumerable" stars. The enumeration has been carefully made by Mr. and Mrs. Baily, and gives 6,389 for the number of stars in this cluster. They are of opinion, however, that the actual number is really greater, and we may perhaps conclude that it contains about ten thousand stars. If the whole sky were as thickly studded with stars as in this cluster which of course it is not the total number visible in the whole heavens would be, I find, sixteen hundred and fifty millions, a very large number, of course, but not much in excess of the present human population of the earth, and I am not aware that the number of the earth's inhabitants has ever been described as "infinite." Clusters such as Omega Centauri, and even the Pleiades, are of course remarkable and rare exceptions to the general rule of stellar distribution, and This the comparatively poor regions of the Let us see what richness of stellar, sky into consideration as well as the distribution is implied by this number rich regious of the Milky Way, it is of one hundred millions of visible stars. now generally admitted by all astrono- It may be easily shown that the area mers who have studied this particular of the whole sky, in both hemispheres, question that the probable number of is 41,253 square degrees. This gives stars visible in our largest telescopes 2,424 stars to the square degree. The does not exceed one hundred millions, moon's apparent diameter being slightly a number which, large as it is, abso-over half a degree (31′ 5′′), the area of lutely, may be considered as relatively its disc is about one-fifth of a square very small, and even utterly insignifi- degree. The area of the whole star caut when compared with an "infinite sphere is consequently about two hunnumber." dred thousand times the area of the That this number of one hundred full moon. A total of one hundred millions will not probably be largely millions of stars gives therefore five increased by any increase of telescopic hundred stars to each space of sky power is shown by the fact that M. equal in area to the full moon. Celoria, using a small telescope of seems a large number, but stars scatpower barely sufficient to show stars tered even as thickly as this would apto the eleventh magnitude, found that pear at a considerable distance apart he could see almost exactly the same when viewed with a telescope and a number of stars near the northern high power. As the area of the moon's pole of the Milky Way as were vis-disc contains about seven hundred and ible in Sir William Herschel's great sixty square minutes of arc, there reflector thus indicating that-here would not be an average of even one at least -no increase of optical power star to each square minute, A pair will materially increase the number of of stars half a minute, or thirty secstars visible in that direction. For onds apart, would form a very wide Herschel's gauging telescope certainly double star, and with stars placed at showed far fainter stars than those even this distance the moon's disc of the eleventh magnitude in other would cover about three thousand, or parts of the heavens. It should, there- six times the actual number visible in fore, have shown fainter stars at the the largest telescopes. Galactic Pole also, if such stars existed in that region of space. Their absence seems certain proof that very faint stars do not exist in that direction, and that, here at least, our sidereal universe is limited in extent. But in addition to this conclusive evidence as to the limited number of the visible stars, derived from actual observation and the results of photography, we have indisputable evidence, from mathematical considerations, that the number of the visible stars must necessarily be limited. For were the stars infinite in number, and scattered through space with any approach to uniformity, it may be proved that the whole heavens would shine with the brightness of the sun. As the surface of a sphere varies directly as the square of the radius, and light inversely as the square of the distance (or radius of the star sphere at any point), we have the diminished light of the stars exactly counterbalanced by the increased number at any given distance. For a distance of say ten times the distance of the nearest fixed star, the light of each star would be diminished one | essary to produce the required extinchundred times (ten multiplied by ten), tion, would be very small, so small but the total number of stars would be indeed that a quantity of this matter one hundred times greater, so that the scattered through a volume equal to starlight would be the same. This that of the terrestrial globe, if colwould be true for all distances. The lected into one mass, would only form total light will therefore (by addition) | a ball of less than one inch in diameter ! be proportional to the distance, and We can readily admit the existence of hence for an infinite distance we should such a minute quantity of matter in have an infinite amount of light. For a fine state of subdivision scattered an infinite number of stars therefore through space, but it seems to me much we should have a continuous blaze of more probable that the limited number light over the whole surface of the vis- of the visible stars is due, not to any ible heavens. Far from this being the extinction of their light by absorption case, the amount of light afforded by in the ether or by fine particles of matthe stars on even the clearest nights is, ter, but to a real "thinning out" of on the contrary, comparatively small, the stars near the limits of the visible and the blackness of the background, universe. Celoria's observation, men"the darkness behind the stars,' is tioned above, seems to prove that near very obvious. According to Miss the pole of the Milky Way very few Clerke (System of the Stars, p. 7), the stars fainter than the eleventh magnitotal lights of all the stars to 9 magni- tude are visible even in a large teletude is about one-eightieth of full scope. Now this absence of the fainter moonlight. M. G. l'Hermite found for magnitudes cannot well be due to any the total amount of starlight one-tenth absorption of light, for numerous faint of moonlight, but this estimate is evi- stars of the sixteenth and seventeenth dently much too high. The number magnitudes are visible, in other parts of the visible stars cannot therefore be of the heavens; and if in one place infinite. why not in another? Sir John Herschel's observations of the Milky Way in the Southern Hemisphere appear to render the hypothesis of light extinction very improbable. He says that the hypothesis, "if applicable to any, is equally applicable to every part of the Galaxy. We are not at liberty to argue that at one part of its circumference our view is limited by this sort of cosmical veil which extinguishes the smaller magnitudes, cuts off the nebu To explain the limited number of the stars several hypotheses have been advanced. If space be really infinite, as we seem compelled to suppose, it would be reasonable to expect that the number of the stars would be practically infinite also. But, as I have shown above, the number of the visible stars is certainly finite; and to explain this fact it has been suggested that there may be an "extinction of light," caused by absorption in the ether, be-lous light of distant masses, and closes yond a certain distance in space. This hypothesis was supported by the famous astronomers Olbers and Struve. In a recent paper on this subject, Schiaparelli, the well-known Italian astronomer, suggests that if any extinction of light really takes place it may probably be due, not to absorption in the ether, but to fine particles of matter scattered through interstellar space. He refers to the supposed constitution of comets' tails, of falling stars, and meteorites in support of this hypothesis, and he How then are we to explain the limshows that the quantity of matter nec-ited number of the visible stars? If our view in impenetrable darkness while at others we are compelled by the clearest evidence telescopes can afford, to believe that star-strewn vistas lie open, exhausting their powers, and stretching out beyond their utmost reach, as is proved by that very phenomenon which the existence of such a veil would render impossible, viz., infinite increase of number and diminution of magnitude, terminating in complete irresolvable nebulosity." J. E. GORE. From Macmillan's Magazine. CROMWELL'S VIEWS ON SPORT. THE popular conception of the Puritan leaders represents them as much more puritanical than they really were. Fanatical though they might be in some of their ideas, there was often very little of the fanatic in their exteriors. In manners, in dress, and even in some of their amusements, they were like other country gentlemen or other lawyers of their time. The difference was that in their bearing and in their behavior there was always visible a certain sobriety and self-restraint, which sprang naturally from more serious views of life and higher ideals of conduct. Scott's portraits of Colonel Everard and Henry Morton are true pictures of the average Puritan gentleman. space be infinite the number of the black background of the heavens, "the stars would probably be infinite also, darkness behind the stars." or at least vastly greater than the number actually visible. It has been suggested that, owing to the progressive motion of light, the light of very distaut stars may probably have not yet reached the earth, although travelling through space for thousands of years; but considering the vast periods of time indicated by the geological record, and the probably longer period during which | the stellar universe has been in existence, this hypothesis seems very unsatisfactory. It seems to me that the most probable hypothesis is that all the stars, clusters, and nebulæ visible in our largest telescopes form together one vast system which constitutes our visible universe, and that this system is isolated by a starless void from other similar systems which probably exist in infinite space. The distance between those separate systems may be very great compared with the diameter of each system, in the same way that the diameter of our visible universe is very great compared with the diameter of our solar system. As the sun is a star and the stars are suns, and as our sun is separated from his neighbor suns in space by a sunless void, so may our universe be separated from other universes by a vast and starless abyss. On this hypothesis the supposed extinction of light, which may have little or no perceptible effect within the limits of our visible universe, may possibly come into play across the vast and immeasurable distances which probably separate the different universes from each other, and may perhaps extinguish their light altogether. Another hypothesis which also seems possible is that the luminiferous ether which extends throughout the visible universe may be confined to this universe itself, and that beyond its confines the ether may thin out as the earth's atmosphere does at a certain distance from the earth's surface, and finally cease to exist altogether, ending in an absolute vacuum, which would of course arrest the passage of all light from outer space, and thus produce the Cromwell, like his brothers in arms, is often described as a morose aud gloomy fanatic. A candidate in а recent examination summed up this popular view of his character in the following words: "Cromwell was a man of intense religious fervor. In the days of his youth we find him growing up a rigid Puritan. He could not bear the thought of any sensual enjoyment. He was always able to be foremost at sports, yet to enjoy himself was the very greatest sin. We hear of him going through days of sorrow because he had partaken in some innocent enjoyment. He always had a great fear of the Evil One." The real Cromwell, however, was by no means afraid to enjoy himself or averse to amusements. "Oliver," as one of his offi. cers observes, "loved an innocent jest," aud especially a practical jest. Under the cuirass of the general or the royal robe of the Protector he was always an athletic country gentleman of sporting tastes. His Royalist biographers make his early taste for athletics one of their charges against him. He learnt little at Cambridge, says | Castle, the Earl of Manchester, who "Carrion" Heath, "and was more fa- had allowed the king's army to escape mous for his exercises in the fields and refused to advance when the opthan the schools, being one of the chief portunity had offered, ordered Crommatch-makers and players of football, well and the cavalry to check the king's cudgels, or any other boisterous sport march. Cromwell, eager to advance or game." He "was soon cloyed with three days earlier, now held it imposstudies," adds Bates, "delighting more sible to carry out the plan. Manchesin horses, and in pastimes abroad in ter's chaplain heard Cromwell earnestly the fields." Thus much we may safely dissuading his general. "My Lord," believe; but Heath is probably invent- he said, "your horse are so spent, so ing when he informs us that after Mr. | harassed out by hard duty, that they Cromwell returned to his home at will fall down under their riders, if you Huntingdon "his chief weapon in thus command them; you may have which he delighted, and at which he their skins, but you can have no serfought several times with tinkers, ped- vice." 2 lars, and the like, was a quarter-staff, As Cromwell rose in power and rank at which he was so skilful that seldom his love of horses began to be more did any overmatch him." conspicuous, and his position enabled The love of horses which Bates men-him to indulge it to the full. When he tions is proved by the concurrent testi- started from London in 1649 to conmony of all contemporary writers, and quer Ireland, "he went forth in that by instances drawn from every part of state and equipage as the like hath Cromwell's life. It was as a leader of hardly been seen; himself in a coach cavalry that he originally gained his with six gallant Flanders mares, redfame, and it cannot be doubted that dish-grey." 8 In 1655, when the Spanthe superior efficiency of his regiment ish ambassador took his leave of the was due not only to the care with which Lord Protector, Cromwell sent him he selected his men, but to the atten-"his own coach of six white horses " tion which he devoted to their mounts. to convey him to and from Whitehall. "The men," says Bates, "became in "Certain it is," adds the narrator, time most excellent soldiers; for "that none of the English kings had Cromwell used them daily to look after, ever any such."4 During the Protecfeed, and dress their horses, and, when torate the diplomatic agents of England it was needful, to lie together on the in foreign parts were often employed ground; and besides taught them to to procure horses for the Protector. clean and keep their arms bright, and Longland, the agent at Leghorn, wrote have them ready for service." Con- on June 18th, 1655, reporting his progtemporary pamphlets mention two ex-ress: "I now have advice from my amples of Cromwell's solicitude for the friend at Naples that his Highness' horses of his troopers. In October, commission for the two horses and 1643, just before Winceby fight in Lin- four mares is complete, I hope to his colnshire, when the Earl of Manches- Highness' full content; my next may ter ordered his officers to prepare to bring you an invoice of their cost and give battle, Cromwell alone among charges; as also a description of each; them opposed his resolution. "Colonel their race, or pedigree, color, age, Cromwell was in no way satisfied that height, quality, and condition. Alwe should fight, our horse being al- though my said friend be a merchant, ready wearied with hard duty two or yet he professes some skill in horsethree days together."1 Again, in No-manship, besides which he has had the vember, 1644, after the second battle of Newbury, when Charles returned to Fetch away his guns from Donnington Newbury, 1644, p. 6. 1 Vicars, God's Ark, p. 45. 2 Simeon Ash, A True Relation of the Most Chief Occurrences at and Since the Late Battle at 3 Blencowe, Sydney Papers. |