Reinsch (Ginn & Co.). The First Book of World Law, p. 257, Raymond L. Bridgman. Describe the International Telegraphic Union at Berne. Public International Unions, pp. 15-20, 17678, Paul S. Reinsch. The First Book of World Law, p. 264, Raymond L. Bridgman.

Describe the International Institute of Agriculture at Rome. Public International Unions, pp. 51-55, Paul S. Reinsch. Write to your Congressman for reports of work and activities.

Under "Universal Postal Union," read Public International Unions, pp. 21-28, Paul S. Reinsch. The First Book of World Law, p. 17, Raymond L. Bridgman. Reference may be made to commercial geographies. On travel compare conditions, described in Touring in 1600, by E. S. Bates (Houghton Mifflin Co.), with those of to-day.

See in general The Development of the International Spirit, by Hon. William A. Weir, Lake Mohonk Conference on International Arbitration, 1911, p. 197; The Federation of the World, by Benjamin F. Trueblood (Houghton Mifflin Co.); World Organization, Raymond L. Bridgman (World Peace Foundation).

JANUARY: JUSTICE AND HONOR BETWEEN NATIONS

MAGNANIMITY

GEORGE WASHINGTON

Observe good faith and justice toward all nations. Cultivate peace and harmony with all. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct; and can it be that good

policy does not equally enjoin it? It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and, at no distant period, a great nation to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and benevolence.

When people live closely together, justice toward one another is essential. It is the same with larger communities. Cities dealing with cities, states with states, nations with nations, must found their action on broad principles of justice. History tells us of a time when justice was confined to the nation to which one belonged, and it was then a maxim that "strange air made a man unfree," - that is, no justice was to be given to the man who was out of his own country. Justice in those days, too, depended largely on the privileges of freedom, and the man who was out of his own country was liable to be made a slave. The old Romans, when they conquered another nation in war, made their captives pass under a yoke as a sign of bondage; and toward the man who had passed under the yoke, the Roman did not feel that he had to act with that sense of justice that marked his action toward his fellow Roman citizens.

Before the year 1648 the Roman idea that one nation was superior to all others prevailed. That year saw the close of the Thirty Years' War, a tremendous struggle between the various parts of Europe for dominion over one another. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 marked the change from the old system to a new and better one. At the great meetings of diplomats which made that peace, there was much rivalry as to which nation should be considered most important. Each secretly considered itself superior to the others, and none would admit any inferiority. It seems to us a foolish kind of argument,

but it was very serious then. The result was that all the nations which were independent, or, as they were called, sovereign, were recognized as equal. Thus the largest nation agreed to treat the smallest just as well as it would its big neighbor who might be able to whip it in war. It was nothing less than applying the Golden Rule, "Do unto others as you would that they should do unto you," to the relations between nations. No longer could it be said, as the great Hugo Grotius had written in 1625, that "for those who have supreme power, the equity is where the strength is." Henceforth justice was to play a greater part in the affairs of nations.

Just as in the case of individuals before the courts, it was now recognized that nations should receive justice from each other regardless of their relative wealth, power, or position; but for almost two centuries after the Peace of Westphalia that system of equality among nations was confined to Europe.

On July 4, 1776, the American Congress in the Declaration of Independence declared "that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; ... and that as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do." On February 6, 1778, France, by means of a treaty of alliance, recognized the United States as a sovereign nation, this recognition being the first admission of a non-European territory into the family of nations. After the Revolution was over, all the other European nations admitted the sovereignty of the United States.

Many instances could be cited to explain the meaning of justice between nations, but perhaps the case of China and the Powers affords as striking an illustration as we could select. After the open hostility to foreigners in 1900, a secret society, called the Boxers, was organized to drive out the foreigners and to destroy the Christians among the Chinese. It looked as if China would be cut up and parceled out among the European nations, whose citizens were in danger. But the American Secretary of State, John Hay, on July 3, 1900, sent a note to the Powers, declaring that it was the policy of the United States to preserve China for the Chinese, and asking that the other Powers agree to the same action. This policy was adopted, and in return China dispersed the Boxers and punished the guilty officials. But when the demand came for a money indemnity, the United States protested against the injustice of the amount of the claims, between four hundred and five hundred millions, declaring that China could not afford to pay such a huge sum. China recognized the justice of paying an indemnity, which was finally fixed at three hundred and thirty-three millions.

When, however, China decided to adopt what was good in Western civilization, the United States in 1908 showed her friendship and justice toward this great Eastern nation by remitting that part of the Boxer indemnity which remained unpaid. The share of the United States was originally twenty-five million dollars. China felt very grateful. She sent a high official to the United States to thank our people for this act of friendship; but she did more. She had already realized the value of Western education and decided not to use the money which the United States had remitted to her, for

her own purposes, but to use it in training her young men in the learning of the West, so that they would be able to conduct her public affairs in more modern ways. Beginning with 1909, one hundred students, chosen for their ability, were to be sent each year to the United States for four years, or until 1913, to acquire the best education which they could from our colleges. From 1913 on to 1940 the number sent each year was to be fifty, since each student remains here for several years, and about five hundred are in the country all the time. This scheme is being carried out, and the result is that many Chinese are learning our ways and are returning to their native country to become leaders of their fellow citizens.

Honor between nations impels them to acts of justice and to fair treatment because they would be ashamed to do otherwise, to act meanly. National honor is well illustrated in the case of the United States and Cuba. Cuba was for a long time a Spanish possession, but under Spanish rule the people of the island were not treated well and their progress was not rapid. Spain had an obsolete idea that a colony was a territory from which the mother country should get all it could, letting the people shift as they might. Conditions in Cuba were bad, and an insurrection occurred. It was opposed by Spain with means so cruel that the American people were aroused, and the final result was the SpanishAmerican War, which resulted in the freedom of Cuba. It would have been natural enough if the United States had stepped into the place of Spain and made Cuba her colony. But the United States had given her word that Cuba should be free, and that she would only superintend the erection of self-governing institutions among