tems of re [LECT. IV. moral systems are substantially the same:' and thus far all religions embodying and enshrining a system of morals. Such would, no doubt, be the case, if Religion contained nothing beyond morality; or if the number of primary moral truths can be shown to be extremely small, and their application in the form of duties simple and obvious. And sys- But, as a matter of fact, is no difference disligion vary cernible in the moral value of separate religions, of Christianity as compared with Paganism, or of Oriental systems as compared with one another? Are we, then, still to be told that the morals of all nations have been the same, if not as a matter of practice, and in the diffusion of effects, yet in principle and substance; that no improvements have been made in morality for at least three thousand years; and that it admits of no discoveries ? 2 as to their moral value. Twofold reply on § 3. Such objections, containing an implicit the part of criticism of Revelation, allow, so far as we are revelation, concerned with them, of a double answer. One, Christian that Religion, recognizing and addressing the spiritual part of man, influences and enlarges thereby his stock of moral truth, supplying new motives of action on the utilitarian side, new 1 Mr. Lecky, Hist. Eur. Mor., I. 103–114, has ably shown that the unity of morals in different ages is a unity not of standard, but of tendency. In the same work (I. 156, 165) he argues directly against Mr. Buckle's theory on this subject. 2 See Sir James Mackintosh ap. Buckle, I. 181. The title of his work is, 'A Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy.' contents as A test influenc ing and higher advancing morals, sanctions and grounds of duty in each fresh revela- From its tion of our relations with God and man.' is thus supplied which distinguishes the from the lower religions of the earth, and still leaves the Faith of Christ the foremost in the history of civilization. Religion further systematizes moral truths already recognized by concentrating them into one focus of new unsuspected light. Can the doctrine of the brotherhood of mankind, for example, be considered to stand on the same footing now as before the revelation of Jesus Christ? Does the duty of love to God remain the same? True religion, says Pascal, must have for a credential the obligation of loving God. Yet what religion except our own has included this among its ordinances ?2 Another answer (on which I shall not dwell at length) is that in the application of the rules of known ethical systems there is an indefinite field of extension, one strictly analogous to the growth of knowledge in other subjects. In this direction the history and character of Christian teaching, and from not to speak of its positive institutions, has had torical proa marked and lasting influence. It is unnecessary during the the his gress made Christian 1 Compare Butler's Analogy, Pt. II. c. i., where he argues for the era. importance of Christianity as a distinct publication of natural morality, containing relations which produce new obligations not dependent on the method of revelation. 2 "La vraie religion doit avoir pour marque d'obliger à aimer son Dieu. Cela est bien juste: et cependant aucune autre que la nôtre ne l'a ordonné. La nôtre l'a fait."-Pensées, Art. III. Mode of advance. to insist on the importance of casuistry as a department of moral science, or on the contributions which have been furnished to it by Christian theologians. Still wider is the field thus opened when it is considered that the analysis of the circumstances of acts leads up to a revision and re-arrangement of already-known principles of duty. Man's moral and spiritual experience enlarges with his history. New grounds of practice are brought to light, as the action is referred to different reasons of rightness or wrongness. In this manner new moral conceptions, new theories of conduct, fresh central principles of action, new standards of merit, and of the relative value of particular virtues, even new faculties, are so far from being impossible of discovery, that they both in fact exist, and are continually recognized in the growth of culture, illustrating the whole 1 On this subject see De Quincey, Works, Vol. XIV. pp. 22, 24, 69; also some careful and just remarks by Mr. Morley, Crit. Misc., pp. 351, 364. Sir H. Maine, Ancient Law, c. ix., too readily condemns casuistry as a species of moral theology, having its origin in the distinction of mortal and venial sins. If, indeed, we adopt his view, that moral philosophy is but a compound of law and metaphysic, we might fairly doubt of the progressive capacities of ethical science. 66 2 Thus Mr. Herbert Spencer holds that moral intuitions are the results of accumulated experiences of utility. See Bain, Mental and Mor. Sc., p. 722. Character," says Prof. Goldwin Smith, "does not remain the same: the character of the man is continually advancing through life; and in like manner the character of the race advances through history."-Study of Hist., p. 37. Mr. Mill, Comte and Pos., p. 112, looks on Protestantism as specially inculcating a distinct moral principle, involving the duty of culture; viz. direct individual responsibility to God. region of duty. The subject of morals as a practical system reacts upon its own scientific base; and the analysis of complex effects and of compound agents observable in other branches of knowledge, advances here also, and with the same results. that this intellec not due to § 4. But, it may be said, the very progress in- Objection, dicated is an intellectual one, and owes nothing to progress is the influences of Religion. It may be explained tual, and by an invariable law of progress observable in religion, human affairs. Science depends on improved methods of research, on their application to instances, on the development of the principles thus suggested. So also with moral truth. Ripened by the circumstances of the time, including new modes and lines of thinking due to physical and intellectual causes, it bears unaccustomed fruits. Miraturque novas frondes et non sua poma. The general sentiment of an age, it is said,' is really determined by the intellectual activity, and indirectly by the positive institutions which belong to it; and moral dogmas, as well as the 1 See Mr. Morley's observations on the development of morals, u. s. 2 Mr. Wallace (Malay. Archip., sub fin.) holds that "while civilized communities have progressed vastly beyond the savage state in intellectual achievements, we have not advanced equally in morals . . . It is not too much to say that the mass of our populations have not at all advanced beyond the savage code of morals, and have in many cases sunk below it." Sir John Lubbock's researches lead him to the exact reverse of this opinion. The savage, he holds, is destitute of moral feeling, e. g. of remorse.- —Orig. Civ., p. 265. but to a revival of knowledge. Reply. lectual of the fected by the pre vailing faith. immediate sense of obligation, advance along with it. Where intellect stagnates, morality is low. In the unreasoning savage it may be altogether lacking. To reinstate or create the reign of duty, there must take place a revival or awakening of knowledge. The result is seen in new applications, and a simpler interpretation of moral principles hitherto acknowledged. Thus, the sense of duty, generically the same in different ages, varies in amount, and modifies almost in quantity, the shades of conduct over which it is diffused. The answer to this view lies in a matter of fact. The intel- Among the circumstances of an age, determining condition the general sentiment of the time, can the power period af and authority of the prevailing Faith count for nothing? If the opinions of a given period are dependent on its intellectual condition, has this also been altogether unaffected by Religion? Though intellect and knowledge have their share The sa- in determining the applications of a sense of duty, duty due to the sacredness of that sense and the sanctions it rel gion. imposes are due altogether to Religion, and will vary with its purity and power. It has become fashionable to regard great eras in the history of our belief, the Reformation or the commencement of Christianity itself, as simple moral protests The Refor- against the corruption of the times. Such a view a moral misunderstands the character of the phenomena it seeks to explain. The Reformation began, indeed, credness of mation not protest. |