quarters without previous communication, | Battle of the Books, and quote a passage as when Newton and Leibnitz both discov-from Nodier on the contrast between the ered the fluxional calculus about the same appreciation of modern books and that of time; and as Adams and Leverrier inde- old ones, or bouquins. He says: pendently came to the conclusion of the existence, and pointed out the position, of Oceanus. Had M. Fournier's theory of the human race being the only true inventor been appreciated on these and similar occasions, it might have happened that the heart-burnings and strifes as to priority would have been avoided, to the exceeding credit of science. But this could scarcely be expected, since the author himself can never see its application when the question is between a Frenchman and an Englishman. No, the verdict on any given question as to priority is, that the former invented, and the latter stole the idea, adding to his larceny general abuse of the original proprietor.

"In all advancing civilizations, and particularly in France, where civilization gal lops, there is a determined predilection for the new and an invincible repugnance for the old; because we do not consider that it is from the old that the new is made, and that modern society is incapable of anything else. the bouquin, which no one reads, and in Thence arises the universal proscription of which are hid, and have been for two or three centuries, all the elements of our modern perfections. Is it a question of mnemonics, the secret of which a German charlatan sells for six louis? It is in Grattarol, in Paëpp, in Giordano Bruno, in a hundred other copysells for ten sous. ists of the first book of Herennius, which Is it the power of steam, so ably applied by Watt of Greenock ? It Another noteworthy phenomenon con- is in a Bouquin by Denis Papin of Blois. nected with the development of ideas, is the Is it the frivolous toy (jeu frivole) of the great similarity that is thereby suggested aeronauts? It is in Cyrano of Bergerac. between mind in all ages. As the same Bouquin! archibouquin! prototype of boumechanical and dynamic ideas have quins!' pervaded all research in these departments towards a true solution of problems, such as those connected with the power of elastic vapors and the substitution of inorganic forces generally for human or animal power; so in the forms of error that have vitiated the study of mental problems, men's minds have ever run, as it might be said, in the same tramroads. As one illustration of our meaning, we may mention the fact, that one of the great delusions of the present day was a delusion or an imposture in classic times. Tables were turned for the benefit (or otherwise) of the Roman emperors, as related by Marcellinus; and spirits rapped in China and Thibet long ages probably before this, with perhaps as important communications as now. To this we may return. Meanwhile, the forms of error and truth have ever presented such striking returns and cycles, as to suggest to the psychologist the important inquiry whether, as from physical aberrations the true nature and direction of force may be calculated, so in like manner, from the vagaries of mind, its essential nature and tendency may not some time be inferred; but from this day we are still far removed. Returning to the consideration of how

much modern times are indebted to the ancients, we may pass over the well-known

One of the discoveries which the nineteenth century has most unhesitatingly claimed for itself is that of light-drawing, daguerreotype, or photography, with its innumerable varieties. It is somewhat strange, however, to look back an entire century, to 1760, and find the process there described with even greater perfection of detail than any that we are able to attain at present,— photography producing color as well as form! Even if this be but a dream of science-an open question—it is but little less remarkable than if the design had really been carried out. Tiphaigne de la Roche in 1760 published his Giphantie (an anagrammatic title), in which some curious passages are found. In one place he represents himself as transported to the palace of the elementary genii, the chief of whom addresses him thus:

"Thou knowest that the rays of light reflected from different bodies make pictures, and paint these bodies on all polished surfaces, as the retina of the eye, on glass, and on water. The elementary spirits have sought to fix these transient images; they have compounded a matter, subtle, viscous, and quick to dry and harden, by means of which a picture is formed in a moment. With this matter they cover a canvas, and present it to the objects they wish to paint.

The first effect of the canvas is that of a [eries were apparently at hand. But the time mirror; all the bodies, both near and dis-was not ripe, nor the necessity for so powerful tant, of which light can bring the image, are an agent imminent; and so its power was seen in it. recognized and used as a plaything, and occasionally for less justifiable purposes. Hero of Alexandria, writing twenty centuries ago, described sundry little machines moved by the power of steam; one of them was an engine of direct rotation, which only needed the capacity for increased power to supply that which Watt considered the great desideratum in steam motion. This invention was actually patented by certain parties in 1837. On the strength of this, M. Fournier claims for Hero the credit of having wellnigh exhausted the theory of steam poweravoir dit le premier et le dernier mot des machines à vapeur.

"But this web, by means of its viscous covering, does that which a mirror cannot do, and retains the images. This impression of the images is an affair of the first moment when the web receives them. We take it at once and place it in a dark room, an hour afterwards the covering is dry; and you have a picture so much the more precious that no art can imitate its truth, and no time can injure it. We take in their purest source, in light itself, the colors which painters obtain from different materials, which time must alter. The precision of the design, the variety of the expression, the gradation of light and shade, the rules of perspective, all these we abandon to nature, which traces upon our canvas images which impose upon the eyes, and make reason to doubt and hesitate."

This force, like certain other natural agents, was not unknown to the priests, and was by them used to impose upon the minds of the people by the performance of apparent miracles. They had their altar so contrived, that the force of confined steam filled the cup from which their libation was to be poured to overflowing, and the people forthwith cried "a prodigy." In order of history, the next mention made of the uses of steam is by Agathias, who describes a complicated apparatus of boilers, tubes, and planks of wood used by an architect in the reign of Justinian to alarm a neighbor of his, Zeno by name, who was thereby deluded into the belief in an earthquake. The device was foolish enough, but the effects produced appear to have been sufficient to sug

The elementary spirit then entered into some physical details as to the nature of the viscous covering that intercepts and retains the rays of light, as to the difficulty of preparing and employing it, and as to the mode of reaction of the light and this body; three problems which Tiphaigne abandons to the sagacity of the inquirers of that day. It appears more than probable that he himself had made some progress towards their solution, but nothing is known with certainty. the passage is exceedingly curious, whether as a detail of actual experiment or a prevision of science. Tiphaigne, however, was not the first who had attempted to fix the images formed by the sun's rays. Accord-gest the almost boundless power of the agent ing to M. Jobard, there has been recently found in Russia a bonquin, translated from the German three hundred years ago, which contains very clearly "photography explained." The ancient alchemists were acquainted, under another name, with chloride of silver, and its property of receiving the impressions, in various shades, of images cast upon it by a glass. This, therefore, has apparently been in the old time before us.

employed, had it been intelligently handled.

With the exception of being employed in some undefined manner about an organ, by Gerbert, steam was, previous to the sixteenth century, little more than an amusement, or at best a scientific curiosity. It had, however, been used to turn a spit! Of this we may find proof in Cardan, Leonardo da Vinci, and others.

Why were the uses of steam so long overlooked? Partly, we suppose, because man needed them not; partly, because electricity was yet elementary; and—says our author -"electricity and steam are two forces which must arise together and act together They are body and soul. This one is impa

Steam, which has assumed such gigantic proportions in all the operations of our age, was known to the ancients, but in great measure only as a toy. And yet it is remarkable to observe throughout its entire history, how very nearly the greater discov*For references on this subject, see Le Vieux-tient of distance, but cannot annihilate Neuf, vol. i. p. 22, note.

though it may abridge it; thought requires

still more rapid wings, and electricity gives ence are inestimable. The writer in the Enthem. The one devours space, the other cyclopædia Britannica appears to think that suppresses it."*

use.

The application of steam to navigation appears to have been its earliest important Paddle-wheels had been known from a very remote period, "having been employed by the ancient Egyptians, the Romans, and other nations of antiquity, for propelling their war galleys; but it is doubtful whether any advantage was thus obtained in economy of labor, as compared with the use of oars." In 1543, Blasco de Garey appears to have conceived the idea of applying the force of steam to the paddles, in some manner not described, and thereby

Papin's suggestions for the application of steam to navigation must be considered as theory only, never carried out. But his correspondence with Leibnitz, which has only been brought to light recently, fully proves that he actually constructed a steamboat, which he navigated upon the river Fulda; which said boat may serve as a warning to men not to be too clever for their age. M. Fournier relates that Papin labored at his construction for some years at Hanau ; and that at Cassel, in the presence of the landgrave, the boat was launched. The experiment succeeded; but from it he derived noth"Succeeded in propelling a ship of 200 tons treated as a charlatan and a fool. M. Fournier ing but scorn, ridicule, or abuse. He was burden in the harbor of Barcelona, at the rate of three miles an hour. . . . We can "Is not astonished. In every age we have only speculate as to the nature of this mys- the conceit to believe ourselves possessed of terious engine, but it seems probable that it supreme science; and consequently every owed its efficacy to the reaction of a jet of pretension to further advances is considered high-pressure steam, on the same principle as an effort of folly or vanity. Men must as that famous classical toy, the Eolipile of not be in advance any more than clocks. Hero, invented B.C. 120. Notwithstanding Far from seeing in such a fact any gain upon that the scheme was commended by the Em- time, it is only considered as an index of deperor (Charles V.) and his ministry, and its rangement and disorder. Regulate your author promoted, we do not read of any sec- thoughts by your age, as your watch by the ond attempt being made, or of any further sun: otherwise, poor impatient genius, the notice being taken of the invention. We world will mock at your ideas, and whilst may assume, therefore, that in this case the you advance, those whom you leave behind propelling power was found to be insufficient will vent their wrath in reproaches." and unsatisfactory, and the experiment was worthless in its result."

But may we not rather assume that this most important discovery was merely undergoing the fate of all such; viz., that they must be discovered again and again, until the time be ripe and men's minds prepared, and a favorable conjunction of circumstances occur? What may be the law presiding over such events it is not possible to say, but it is certain that no invention has ever been made and applied at once on its first enunciation; at least we do not now recall one such.

M. Fournier throws great doubt and discredit upon this experience of Blasco, that he may claim the merit of the origination of steam navigation for one whose name is sufficiently illustrious without this contest,refer to Papin, whose contributions to sci

Le Vieux Neuf, vol. i. p. 202.

-we

+ Vide Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. xx. Steam Navigation. Ibid.

Meanwhile Papin, disgusted with the conduct of the Hessians, who saw in him nothing but a visionary or madman, attempted to go to London in his own vessel. He descended the Fulda as far as Münden, and was entering the Weser, formed by the union of the Fulda and the Werra, when the boatmen of Münden, envious or suspicious of what might arise from the invention, laid violent hands upon him and his boat,-he escaping with difficulty, but his boat being destroyed. He tried in vain to get redress; and then came to reside in London, where he died three years afterwards, without having built a new boat.

It is strange that after these experiments doubts should have so long prevailed on the question whether there could be found any

substitute for the action of the wind in moving large vessels. So late as 1753, the Academy decided in the negative, and concluded: " que l'on devait perdre toute espérance de pouvoir substituer sur les grandes vaisseaux avec quelque succés considerable,

We do not find that our century can strictly claim the invention of railways, any more than that of steam navigation, although it has developed and perfected both to a remarkable extent. Railroads, or tramways, have been known for an indefinite period; and even the true steam locomotive engine is not an invention of this century. The combination of the two now inseparable elements is certainly our own. Dr. Forbes, speaking of the railway, says :

les forces motrices renfermées dans les choses steam carriages. How it was accomplished naturelles aux travaux des hommes." And is not related; but of the result it is said again in 1804, when Fulton introduced his that "his carriage marched onward with invention to Napoleon, and it was referred such violence that it was impossible to dito the Academy, they again decided against rect it. At one time it overthrew a wall it, the Emperor for once distrusting his that stood in the way. With such a carown judgment; perhaps fortunately, for the riage the cannon became useless-it usurped moment at least, for England. The Mar- the place of the bullet itself. A little more quis Jouffroy afterwards followed in the same rapidity, a little less violence (sic), and the track, but only earned for himself the sou- steam locomotive would be found; but briquet of Jouffroy-la-pompe. But the time whatever Cugnol and Gribeauval could do, had now arrived when the world was pre- these results could not be obtained, and the pared for steam-vessels, and their after-his- machine was abandoned!" It is quite retory is well known. freshing to find that even though it is still a Frenchman that invents, it is not always an Englishman that steals; in this case M. Gribeauval, as the superior officer, assumed the credit of the invention, and it was not for many years that the truth was known. But in all this, M. Fournier says nothing of a design for a steam-carriage published by Dr. John Robison in the Universal Magazine for 1757. This is at least twelve years too early for his purpose; but in the same year Dr. Robison directed Watt's attention to "Of all the inventions which have power-application; and it is said that Watt conthe steam-engine, with a view to this very fully affected the interests of mankind, none have been more slowly perfected, or can be less certainly traced to a single individual as the inventor, than those of the Locomotive Engine and the Railway. These two great and essentially connected portions of the greatest mechanical and commercial efforts of any age or country, had their origin in obscurity. Each appeared several times to be rising into the importance it deserved, but failing the concurrence of the fortunate circumstances which are necessary to give permanence to invention, was once more forgotten, and was left for rediscovery at a happier epoch."

Another illustration only, how necessary something else is besides an inventton and an inventor, for any practical innovation. It is curiously uncertain, in a matter of such notoriety, to whom the original idea was due; apparently to no one man. Perhaps one suggested it, another "paid attention to it," and a third carried it out partially and imperfectly, to be improved upon by a fourth. M. Fournier claims the invention for M. Cugnol, about 1769, who, at the instigation of General Gribeauval, discovered this method of moving artillery rapidly on

*Encyclopædia Britannica, 6th Inaugural Dissertation.

structed a model on the suggestion. It was not in allusion to this, however, but to a later plan in 1784, that Darwin wrote those well-known lines in the Botanic Garden :— "Soon shall thine arm, unconquered steam, afar Drag the slow barge, or drive the rapid car."

As it is only with the early foreshadowings of modern inventions that we are concerned, we pursue the history of the locomotive no further, but turn for a moment to that of the railroad itself. On this again, Dr. Forbes remarks, that "if the idea of a locomotive belongs to no one man, still less does that of a railway, which being one of the most elementary of mechanical contrivances, may be traced under some modifications, almost indefinitely backwards, as a means of conveying heavy loads with facility. Hence it was chiefly confined to quarries and colleries, especially in underground passages and drifts."+ M. Fournier, however, unhesitatingly claims the merit of the first introduction of rails or tramways into England for France, in the person of one Beaumont, who, he asserts, came over from Le Vieux-Neuf, vol. i. p. 305. † Op. cit. p. 884.

France, and established about 1630, in the proof is adduced), M. Fournier proceeds to neighborhood of Newcastle, "the first of moralize upon the French and English charthose railroads, the immense network of acters in relation to inventions :which will soon girdle the world."* We find no such history as this in our own

chronicles; and the only authority given by our author is that of an obscure duodecimo Memorial of Chronology, published by an unknown writer in Paris in 1829.

"Is not there here great occasion to re

peat one of the thousand invectives launched ages ago against the carelessness of France towards her own works-against this weakness, this horror of perseverance, which leads her to abandon everything which a brilliant genius has suggested? England is a better manager; with her every invention prospers, even those that are found as well as England to neglect nothing, but to make those that are stolen. It is the genius of capital of all, even the ideas of others. It is the genius of France, on the contrary, to take nothing, but to let everything be taken. This was as notorious even in the sixth century as now."

On still slighter authority are we charged, and in a much gosser form, with having stolen our iron bridges from France. The story, as told here, is worthy a moment's attention. About 1757, a Lyonese painter, whose name M. Fournier does not know, occupied himself one idle day in sketching an iron bridge of one arch, of which the dimensions are given. It was intended to occupy the place of the St. Vincent bridge. CalcuPerhaps the tale may have some slight lations were made, and plans drawn in de- foundation-we cannot tell. Perhaps, and tail, and approved by the authorities, but more probably, it is too flimsy to merit connot executed. "The ordinary destiny of sideration. However this may be, we would first ideas! This poor industry follows the suggest one idea. If the merit of an invenfatal route spoken of by a Chinese proverb, tion be due to the first promulgator of an upon which, if you have ten steps to make, idea, it is not in this case due to the painter you find that, having made nine, you are not in question; for so early as the sixteenth advanced one-quarter of the way." † So it century, proposals for similar undertakings happened (following M. Fournier) to this were made by certain Italian writers.† Plans poor painter, who got nothing but vexation also were drawn in 1719 for bridges of this for his pains; until an English engineer sort, but not carried out. If, on the other passing through, heard of this abortive proj- hand, the merit should attach to him who ect, got acquainted with the painter, gave first executes the work, it must be given to him a few guincas for his plans, etc., and Mr. Thomas Farnolls Pritchard, an archireturned to London to make fame there-tect of Shrewsbury, who designed, and to from. The final result was the bridge of the proprietors of the Coalbrookdale Iron

Wearmouth.

"Much was said everywhere of this structure; and France, be it observed, was not the last to utter cries of admiration. Everywhere eulogies upon this system hitherto unknown to Europe-upon the precision of the plans and calculations-upon the rare genius of the English engineer; but not a word of the Lyonese painter. It was not until fourteen years afterwards that, I know not how, he was remembered even at Lyons.” ‡

Works, Mr. Darby and Mr. Reynolds, who erected the bridge across the Severn, commenced in 1777, and completed in 1779. It appears more than probable that all these were cases of independent invention, of which we meet so many in science and art.

Thus far the claims of our century to originality appear not to be successful. We may be inclined to suppose that although steamers and railways are not novelties, except in detail, that our telegraphs at least Then it appears that, in answer to some would prove to be modern; but let us remarks of an English journal, a Lyons see what history says about it. Professor newspaper claimed the invention for one of Forbes says, that "the idea of using the its citizens, and told this tale, which the transmission of electricity to communicate Moniteur repeated. Our countryman being signals is so obvious as scarcely to deserve thus convicted (!) of theft (for no other

Le Vieux-Neuf, vol. i. p. 71.

† See the essay on Iron Bridges, by Stephenson, in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eighth Edition. Op. cit. p. 985.