not the treasury, profits by the unwise and impracticable policy; and so stringent are some of the articles of the recent customs'-law that the authorities in the out-ports are ashamed to attempt carrying them into effect.

The export-duties are severely oppressive on the growers of currants and other fruits. The new customs'-law is based upon the principle that "Fraud is the basis of all trade," and that this fraud can only be prevented by a formidable system of penalties and punishments.

Western Greece, Argolida, Arcadia, Laconia, | practice augmented, so that the contrabandist, and Lower and Upper Messenia, Elida, Achaia, Eubea, the North and South Cyclades, and the Sporades. The government was re-organised by the fourth National Congress, which met at Argos in the summer of 1829, Capo d'Istrias still remaining at its head. The Panhellenium, a council of twentyseven members, was replaced by another body consisting also of twenty-seven members, called the Gerousia, senate or congress. This body gave its opinion on matters of legislation, but had not the power of a negative upon the decisions of the regency. Besides the senate, there was a ministry consisting of four departments, each having a secretary; viz., the home department, foreign affairs, including commerce, the judiciary, public instruction, and ecclesiastical affairs, war, and marine and finances. Three supreme tribunals were also instituted.

The taxation of Greece is certainly grievous in amount, oppressively exacted from the people, and the whole system is ignorantly arranged and worse managed. For so small a population, the whole being under a million of inhabitants, the government is upon too great and too expensive a scale, and the outlay upon palaces and public edifices not only profuse, but unjust; while, at the same time, there is ample cause to suspect that neither eco

In February, 1830, the plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, France, and Russia, named Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg as the hereditary Sove-nomy nor honesty have been strictly observed in reign of Greece, with the title of "Sovereign Prince." He accepted the appointment, but afterwards resigned it.

sixth.

any branch of the public expenditure. The Greek loan, and the excess of payments over income, has increased the debt to nearly two and a half millions Prince Otho of Bavaria was, in virtue of the sterling guaranteed by England, France, and authority transmitted by the Greek nation to the Russia, £600,000 to Bavaria, besides a heavy convention held at London, and by the treaty con- internal debt; and the expenditure for the three cluded there in 1832, appointed king, and as-years ending 1852 exceeds the revenue by onecended the throne in February, 1833, with a regency of four persons until he attained twenty years of age, which was on the 1st of June, 1835. The government was in 1833 divided into ten monarchies; viz., the Morea into five, Eastern and Western Greece into three, and the islands into two monarchies. These were subdivided into eparchies, and the whole into 468 municipalities or communes (Dimoi). Since the retirement of Capo d'Istrias, the affairs of Greece have been involved in financial difficulties, heavy taxations, and commercial restrictions.

The provisional government of Greece adopted liberal and sound principles of commerce and navigation; and if that under King Otho had continued to act under those principles, we might expect that the shipping and trade of this country -so conveniently situated for commerce, although its productions are not very abundant-would, before now, have enriched the population as well as the treasury.

Under the government of King Otho, which is in practice nearly a despotism, not only have many vexatious regulations and restrictions been introduced, but the state-officers and other employés interfere in a manner which in no country but in Spain and her colonies, and to some extent Portugal and Naples, has offered so unworthy an example to the world. Among other vexatious practices are those of absolutely rating the prices at which currants and other articles of export are to be purchased, and of affixing capricious values to augment the duties on commodities. Greece, under these circumstances, certainly does not afford the prospect of attaining financial, political, or commercial prosperity.

The export and import duties have been in

If Candia had been annexed to Greece on the revolution, and if a strong, intelligent, and strictly just administration had been established, the natu ral capabilities of Greece and Candia, and the energy of the people, would have, during the last ten years, rendered both countries rich and independent. Agriculture, commerce, and revenue, would have naturally flourished, the public credit would have been maintained, and neither England, France, nor Russia, would have had to pay the interest of the Greek loan.

The military force of Greece for 1852 consists of 8,603 men, including gensd'armerie, frontier guards, and a small cavalry and artillery force.

The navy consists of two corvettes, of twentysix guns, two small steamboats, three brigs, seven schooners, five cutters, one royal yacht, two or three packet-boats, and twelve gun-boats. The whole power of this force is insignificant; but the Greeks are admirable sailors.

The whole exports for 1849 amounted to 13,000,000 drachmas, or about £500,000 sterling ; and the imports to 20,000,000 drachmas, or about £750,000 sterling. Yet with this miserable commerce, and a country the greater part of which is rendered unfit for profitable agriculture by rocks and mountains, there is a Government, an executive and administrative establishment, consisting of ministers of the interior, foreign affairs, finance, and justice, war, religion and public instruction, all with extensive bureaucratic appointments. The legislature consists of a senate and house of representatives; and although the former constitution of France was in a great degree imitated, there is scarcely a semblance of public liberty in Greece. The legal tribunals are the Areopagus, or Court

of Cassation, the royal Court of Appeal at Athens, their own country they inherit a great share of and the royal Court of Appeal at Neuplia: besides the mendacity of their ancestors, yet as merchants which there are minor courts. in foreign countries they are generally faithful in The police, which is the worst in Europe, is fulfilling their engagements, and they soon acunder a director-general. There is also a post-commodate themselves to the customs and morals master-general, but the communication by letters of the people among whom they reside. is slow and uncertain.

Although the Greeks have preserved their ancient language in a much greater degree than the Italians, it is only in Eastern Greece that the Hellenic race predominates; and they are inferior both in chivalry, bravery, and virtue to the inhabitants of Northern Greece, who are chiefly Bulgarians, Wallachians, and Albanians. Out of Greece, however, the Greeks distinguish themselves as mariners and as merchants; and although in

The Court of Athens is the focus of intrigues; and Russia and Greece having the sar e religion for their establishments, an extensive and intimate connexion subsists between the priests of Greece and those of the Russian empire, which combination, by its influence over a superstitious people, and the ambition of an unscrupulous hierarchy, appears to us to be menacing the statu quo of Turkey in Europe.

THE

MYSTERIES OF THE WINE

TRADE.

fearing a discovery, thought it prudent to inform their royal master that the stock of this favourite beverage was exhausted.

Another suggestive little anecdote, equally well authenticated, was furnished by the late Mr. Porter, secretary of the Board of Trade. We give it in that gentleman's own words, as reported in his evidence delivered before the Committee on Wine Duties. "An acquaintance of mine," he said, "who invented, some years ago, a substitute for corks, which were made with India-rubber stuffed with wool, was asked if he could make some to resemble champagne corks. He undertook to do so, and was desired to make a small quantity by way of trial. Two days after he had sent them in, he had a note from the parties, requesting to see him; he accordingly went, and they produced a bottle of this quasi champagne wine, with the comment that it was in excellent order; he found it very palatable; but he could not make out how the corks, which he had supplied to them only two days before, could possibly have been used for the corking of champagne wine; and there can be no doubt it must have been all made in this country."

AN impression has long existed that a very extensive manufacture of wines is going on in various parts of the world for the special benefit of British consumers. Vague rumours about elderberry-juice, logwood, cider, Cape, and "brandykowe," about mixing, blending, doctoring, and other mysterious processes and ingredients, have been afloat; and curious bits of knowledge which have occasionally come to light have seemed to lend these rumours some confirmation. Thus Mr. Cyrus Redding recalls to mind the amusing incident which occurred in Carlton House, an anecdote now pretty well known, but which, it seems, Mr. Redding first had from Colonel McMahon. How the Prince Regent had in a corner of his cellar a small quantity of remarkably fine wine of a peculiar quality and Havour; how this wine remaining for some time untouched, "the household" thought their master had forgotten it, and to make up for this inexcusable lapse of memory, took upon themselves to drink it nearly out; how the Prince one day, expecting some illustrious connoisseurs to dinner, ordered this particular wine to be served, and thus threw "the household" into a state of consternation; and how one of them hastened thereupon to take counsel with a confidential wine- Stories of this kind-and there have been many merchant in the city, who quickly allayed his such-floating about in society, have served to terrors. "Send me," said this ingenious individual, strengthen the prevalent impression, that the wine "a bottle of what remains, and I will send you in consumed in England is largely adulterated. The return as much wine of that description as you result has been, as many respectable wine-merwant; only you must take care that what I send chants complain, not a little injurious to their trade. is drunk immediately." This advice was followed, "It is spoken of," said Mr. Porter, "as a trade and the success was complete. The Prince Regent very much altered from the respectable character and his distinguished guests (so the story goes) it used to bear; that persons of inferior moral were delighted with this rare old wine, whose pecu- temperament have entered into it, that tricks are liar merits had been so long overlooked. Three or played that would not have been countenanced in four times afterwards the Prince, whose taste in former times, that the trade is getting a very bad wine was exquisite, ordered some from the same name and repute, and that by such means, and, batch; and on every occasion the confidential dealer as he believed, by the restriction of the conhad recourse to his private vineyard in his cellar, sumption arising from the high rate of duties, and "the mixture as before" was forthcoming. it is a confined and restricted, and by no means This process was continued until "the household," a prosperous trade." On the other hand, some

and pretty constantly "fortified" with alcohol; but these, they hold, are legitimate, proper, and useful processes. As to the various methods of manufacturing and cooking wines, which are alleged to be practised, these witnesses deny their existence, or affirm that they are confined to a very small and disreputable section of the trade.

wine-dealers of good reputation have strenuously | were examined, of whom thirty were wine-growdenied the prevalence of objectionable practices ers, shippers, importers, or agents of much expein their trade to any important extent. They rience in the business; two were British wine admit that wines are frequently blended," manufacturers, two were licensed victuallers, and the remainder were gentlemen who had had peculiar opportunities, either official or private, of making themselves acquainted with the subject under investigation. The witnesses seemed all to have delivered their minds pretty freely, both on matters of opinion and on matters of fact. A good deal of information was obtained that probably would not have been elicited by any other means. A careful review of all this evidence leads to the rather startling conclusion that very little of the wine consumed in this country is in a natural or wholesome condition. Nearly the whole of it is adulterated, and usually with some noxious ingredient, the most common and the most deleteri

some of the remarkable evidence bearing upon this point, it will be requisite to explain, in a few words, the injurious effect of the present importduties, and especially the manner in which they operate to exclude light and pure wines from the English market.

At length, however, the public are enabled to arrive at some satisfactory conclusion upon this interesting question. Among the various engines that have at different periods been resorted to for eliciting the truth on any subject, there is none that will compare for efficiency with a Parliamentary committee. A court of the Inquisition was well enough in its way; but it was not infal-ous being brandy. Before proceeding to adduce libly successful. The rack, the thumbscrew, the iron boot, with an auto da fé "looming in the distance," were powerful pieces of machinery; but it is on record that they sometimes failed to loosen a stubborn tongue, and sometimes extracted from an agonised or terrified witness more evidence than the facts would bear out. A jury-trial, It is a well-known historical fact that, two cenmanaged by practised counsel, is not amiss; but turies ago, much more wine was drunk in this astute witnesses are occasionally found, capable of country than at present, in proportion to the popubaffling the most ingenious cross-examination. A lation, and, at the same time, a much smaller committee of Parliament succeeds in getting at the quantity of spirits was consumed. Wine and beer truth simply by not resorting to any means of in- were then the ordinary beverages of all classes of timidation or compulsion. The witness, generally the people. The importation of wine into this speaking, is not required to reply to any question country, in the year 1669, for a population of which he would rather not answer. He may tell about 5,000,000, was 90,000 pipes of all descripas many falsehoods as he chooses to invent, with tions, including 40,000 pipes of French wine. little fear of being legally called to account for This would be at the rate of two gallons, or twelve perjury. The consequence is, that the witnesses bottles (reckoning six bottles to the gallon) per usually answer every question that is put to them, head of the population. The duty was then only and never wilfully make a mis-statement. The fourpence per gallon. In the year 1851, the total latter offence would, it is true, meet with instant importation of wine, for a population of 27,000,000, punishment, of a kind which few men would be was but 56,000 pipes, or not quite two-thirds of willing to endure. The false witness would neither the importation of 1669; and of this quantity only be tortured nor imprisoned; he would merely be 4,000 pipes were French wine. The annual consent to Coventry. A quiet smile of contempt sumption of wine is, therefore, at present only would circulate through the committee as soon as about three-tenths of a gallon, or one bottle and a the attempted deception was perceived; the cour- half per head of the whole population-just oneteous chairman would suddenly stiffen into rigid eighth of what it was in 1669. The duty is at sternness, the examination would be brought to an present 5s. 9d. per gallon. Let not the sincere abrupt close, and the witness would slink hurriedly advocates of total abstinence imagine that this from the committee-room, with the consciousness prising decrease in the consumption of wine has that he was a disgraced man for life. But, as has resulted from, or contributed to, the growth of been said, this moral penalty is one that is very temperate habits in this country. The exact conrarely, if ever, incurred. There are, of course, trary is unfortunately the fact. Two hundred in the volumes of evidence on various subjects years ago, as has been already stated, though light which every session brings forth, plenty of rash wines and beer were consumed in much larger assertions, of biassed opinions, of fallacies and de- quantities than at present, distilled spirits were lusions; but probably no statement of fact will be comparatively little known. They were drunk in found which the person who made it did not at coffee-houses and in the lobbies of theatres, under the time believe to be correct; and facts being the name of "strong waters;" in fact, much as what are chiefly required in such cases, it is this" liqueurs are now taken on the Continent. circumstance which gives to the labours of Par- About the commencement of last century, the liamentary committees almost all their value. duties on all wines were raised for revenue purThe "Select Committee on Import Duties on poses; and, at the same time, from a desire to Wines," which sat last session, collected a large favour our Portuguese allies at the expense of our mass of evidence, much of it of a highly interest-French opponents, the duty on the light French ing and valuable character. Forty-one witnesses wines was made more than double that on the fiery

sur

place."*

wines of Portugal-the latter paying 28. and the | time, a bad pre-eminence for the quantity of disformer 4s. 10d. per gallon. These duties were tilled liquors consumed by its population. Yet, increased from time to time, until, in the year in former days, previous to the union with England, 1782, French wines paid a duty of 9s. 5d. per this was not the case. When French wines were gallon, and Portuguese of 4s. 10d. The conse-admitted at a low duty, they were abundantly imquence was, that in the last-mentioned year the ported, and were largely consumed by the very consumption of all wines had fallen to about 18,000 parties who, when prevented from indulging their pipes, being just a fifth part of what it was in taste for this favourite cordial, betook themselves 1669. But the consumption of spirits had, in the to spirits as the only substitute that was to be had. meantime, frightfully increased. The common There was a time when it was common to see, in people, debarred by the high price from the use the mansion of a country laird, the cask of claret of the light, exhilarating, but not intoxicating on tap and free to all comers, like the ale-barrel in beverage to which they were previously accus- an old-fashioned English farmhouse. Mr. Redding tomed, were driven to supply its place by various says that he "was told by the late poet, Thomas preparations of ardent spirits, all about equally Campbell (his father was born in 1710, and, conpernicious to health as well as to morals. It was sequently, the statement goes back a great way), given in evidence before a Committee of the House that his grandfather told him they fenced in garof Commons, in 1743," said Mr. Porter, "that the den, field and paddock, with claret-staves." Those quantity of spirituous liquors made for consump- who deprived the Scottish people of what was tion in England and Wales was, in 1733, once their national beverage are responsible for 10,500,000 gallons; in 1734, 13,500,000 gallons; the serious deterioration of the national morals in 1740, 15,250,000 gallons; in 1741, 17,000,000 in point of temperance which afterwards took gallons; and in 1742, 19,000,000 gallons. These quantities were consumed by a population not exceeding 6,000,000, giving three and one-sixth galions for each individual in 1742. There were then more than 20,000 places within the bills of mortality in which gin was sold by the glass. About that period there were very stringent laws passed for the prohibition of the sale of spirits, which were evaded by a variety of means; in fact, it was found quite impossible to enforce the Gin Act, as it was called. Within less than two years from that measure passing, namely, in March, 1738, there was a proclamation issued to inforce the Gin Act. Within less than those two years, 12,000 people had been convicted under the Act within the bills of mortality; of these, 5000 had been sentenced to pay each a penalty of £100, and 3000 others had paid £10 each to excuse their being sent to Bridewell House of Correction. But these proceedings entirely failed, and, subsequent to and including that period, the consumption of spirits was as I have stated to you. It was considerably greater in 1741 and 1742 than it had been in 1738, when that proclamation was issued." Such were the consequences which followed the imposition of a duty upon wine so high as to withdraw it from the consumption of the mass of the people. At the present day, owing to the improved habits which prevail, and more especially to the introduction of tea and coffee into common use, the consumption of spirits is less than it was in the middle of the last century. But it is still disgracefully large, amounting to nearly one gallon per annum for every man, woman and child in the United Kingdom. This is five times the quantity of wine that is consumed; and each gallon of spirits, it must be recollected, contains at least seven times the quantity of alcohol which is contained in a gallon of the light wines of France. The effect produced by the high duties which place these wines out of the reach of the common people, in extending the consumption of spirits, has been especially marked in the case of Scotland. That portion of the United Kingdom has, at this

Another consequence of the imposition of these high duties is that the consumption of wine in the United Kingdom has been directed almost entirely to the very strong and spirituous descriptions, such as highly-brandied ports, sherries, Madeira, and Marsala. The reason is obvious enough. When wine is made costly, people must buy that kind which will " 'go farthest.' A single bottle of strong port or sherry will serve for four or five persons, who would perhaps consume half a dozen bottles of ordinary French wine. The latter quantity, under the present duty, would cost twenty or thirty shillings, while the bottle of spirituous wine would be obtained for four or five. Of course, most persons prefer the stronger wine, not as a matter of taste, but as a matter of economy. If the light French wines could be obtained in this country, as at Hamburgh and other German seaports, for eighteenpence or a shilling a bottle, they would certainly be preferred to the fiery compounds which are now consumed under the names of port and sherry.

We are thus brought to the causes which lead to such extensive adulteration of wines for the English market. So long as wine is dear, it must be had strong. Consequently, wherever in any part of the world a district is discovered producing

* A remarkable example of the effect produced by the opposite system is presented in the case of Liberia. The founders and rulers of that colony have been especially anxious to foster habits of sobriety among the settlers. With this object, a high duty has been imposed upon distilled spirits, while French wines are admitted free. The result has fully answered the expectations of the law-makers. Several writers who have recorded their impressions of the colony, take particular notice of the temperate habits which prevail among all classes of the community. A respectable Liberian colonist, Mr. Roberts (brother of the president) stated at a public meeting at New York, a few weeks ago, that he knew of but two drunkards in the settlement. Of course, higher influences than any mere fiscal regulations have been at work to produce such a state of things. But if, instead of a system which gives them cheap wines and makes spirits costly, the Liberians had adopted such a tariff as exists in Great Britain, societies" would have been more effectual in promoting good be doubted whether churches, schools and "temperance habits on the coast of Africa than in this country.

it may

wine which is naturally of great strength, it is appropriated to the supply of British consumers. There is one such district in Portugal, in the valley watered by the Upper Douro; another in southern Spain, around the town of Xeres de la Frontera; a third in Madeira, and a fourth on the Western coast of Sicily. Of course the greater the natural strength of the wine, the larger will be the infusion of alcohol which it will bear. Winegrowers and wine-dealers, finding that the demand in Great Britain is for very strong wines-simply because such wines will "go farthest," and thus be cheapest to the buyer--are accustomed to add large quantities of spirits, both before and after the wines are imported into this country. Then, to disguise the flavour of the spirits, other ingredients are added. And, finally, to supply in some measure the demand for cheap wines, various other mixtures are manufactured in which the genuine juice of the grape is only one of the several "raw materials" employed.

must, of course, have his profit upon that, as well as upon the original cost of the wine. The winemerchant, who pays the import-duty, must in like manner obtain a fair return for his money; and the result is that the wine is thus raised in cost to about 4s. the bottle-of which 1s. goes to the Imperial Treasury, and the rest to the Portuguese Wine Company, or into the pockets of the dealers.

66

Now, to make wine saleable at this excessively high price, it is necessary that it should be an exceedingly strong wine, so that a little of it may go a great way, either when taken unmixed, or when "blended" with other wines. The Portuguese authorities, being aware of this necessity, have established the law that no wines shall be imported from Portugal to England but such as are very "black, sweet, and strong," possessing sufficient body, flavour, colour, and richness, to qualify them for use in doctoring other wines. "The Portuguese Government," says this witness, "consider literally that port wines are not known or With these preliminary explanations, we may drunk as port wines, but really are used simply proceed to give some account of the mysterious for making up artificial wines in England." In processes which the liquids by courtesy or custom this opinion the Portuguese Government cannot termed "wines," undergo to prepare them for this be very far wrong, if it be the fact, as is stated in market. Taking the several varieties in due order, another part of these minutes, that although only we commence with that illustrious beverage, "good, 20,000 pipes of port wine are imported into this honest, old English port," as one of the witnesses country, 60,000 pipes of what passes for port are affectionately termed it. On this subject we have, consumed by our population. Concerning the manin the first place, the evidence of Mr. Joseph ner in which these essential qualities of blackness, Forrester, a gentleman who has been twenty-two sweetness, and strength, are secured, Mr. Forrester years engaged in growing and shipping Port gives the following explanation :-" If the fermenwines, and who is laudably anxious that the duty tation of the grape-juice were allowed to have its should be lowered, in order that lighter and more full course, sufficient colouring matter would be wholesome wine may reach the British consumer, extracted by that process from the skins or husks and that the injurious practices of adulteration of the grapes which are thrown in with the juice. may be prevented. From this unexceptionable" But," says Mr. Forrester, " in order to produce the testimony it appears that by the present Portuguese other two qualities, namely, the strength and sweetlaw no unsophisticated port wine is allowed to reach ness, the fermentation is sometimes, and very this country! When an Oporto merchant desires to frequently, checked; by which, as the wine is not ship a pipe of pure wine, he purchases of a farmer properly attenuated, the saccharine matter is not cona "permit," which has been obtained for shipping verted into its proper alcohol, and the residue of this a pipe of the sophisticated wine, and, by a species unconverted saccharine matter remains suspended of what is considered allowable smuggling, sub- in the imperfect wine: and hence, to prevent a stitutes his good wine for the doctored wine, which reaction, when the deposit takes place, brandy alone the law allows to be exported. The follow-must be thrown into it to prevent that reaction, as ing are the terms in which Mr. Forrester made well as to give it the strength and the body that this important statement:-"If the wine be un-is ordained by law. If any further colouring sophisticated, as a matter of course by law that wine is not permitted to come to this market; the law distinctly prohibits its being shipped thence; as the wine is intended by the merchant for this market, he purchases from one whose wines have been allowed a permit, and with that permit substitutes his unsophisticated wine, and loads that down to his stores at Oporto." The purchase of this permit, it is stated, increases the cost of the wine by about £3 a pipe. The prime cost of a pipe of good port wine, in the farmer's hands, is, it appears, on an average, about £11. This wine, at a duty of 1s. a gallon (about £5 10s. a pipe), could be sold in this country at 10d. a bottle. At present, however, it has to pay export-dues in Portugal amounting to about £7 a pipe, and an import-duty in England amounting to about £33 a pipe. The shipper, who pays the export-duty,

matter be absolutely requisite by the speculatorI would not suppose by the merchant (for the merchants generally do not like, unless they are obliged, to sell very common wines, and do not like to have recourse to these practices)—then the elderberry is, I believe, the only dye made use of in this country, and costs an enormous sum of money." Mr. Forrester is naturally disposed to deal tenderly with his friends the merchants; but as the only object of thus colouring the wine is to make it suitable for exportation to England, it is clear that the whole, or nearly the whole, of this large quantity of elderberry juice, for which " enormous sum of money" is paid, goes down English throats. The sum of Mr. Forrester's evidence on this particular point may be thus stated. By the Portuguese law, there are required to be united in all wine that is exported to England three quali

"an