in the evening or other convenient time. The Gymnasia are the most fully developed classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine years' course for the universities and the learned professions. The Progymnasia differ from these only in not having the highest classes. In the Realgymnasia, Latin, but not Greek, is taught, and what are usually termed 'modern subjects' have more time devoted to them. Realprogymnasia have a similar course, but have no class corresponding to the highest class in the preceding. In the Oberrealschulen and Realschulen Latin is wholly displaced in favour of modern languages. In 1889, 973 secondary schools, including 53 private schools, possessed the right of granting certificates to pupils, entitling them to serve in the army as one-year volunteers. The teachers in German schools are required to hold a Government certificate, and to have undergone a year's probation. Higher schools for girls are called Höhere Töchterschulen. Besides these there are numerous Gewerbeschulen or technical schools, Polytechnica, normal schools, seminaries, and the universities. The total number of children of school age in 1885 was 8,609,198.

No official statistics of the number of schools, pupils, teachers, &c., are issued for the entire Empire; but particulars on these heads will be found under some of the separate States. The number of elementary schools was estimated in 1887 at 58,000, of pupils attending them 7,100,000, and of teachers 120,000. In 1889 the number of secondary schools was as follows:

Among the more important special and technical schools in 1890 were 11 technical high-schools and polytechnics; 31 middle schools of agriculture; 12 schools of mining; 15 schools of architecture and building; 5 academies of forestry; 23 schools of art and art-industry (Kunst and Kunstgewerbe-Schulen); and 7 public music-schools. There are also numerous smaller, as well as private agricultural, music, &c., schools, and a large number of artisans' or trade-schools. There is a naval academy and school at Kiel, and military academies at Berlin and Munich; besides 32 schools of navigation, 9 military schools, and 9 cadet institutions.

It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation of the united German army, that of all recruits of the year 1889-90 only 0.51 per cent. could neither read nor write. In East and West Prussia and in Posen the percentage ranged from 2:49 to 30; in all the other States the number was less than 1 per cent. In Alsace-Lorraine it was only 1:29 per cent. in 1882-83, and 0.26 in 1888-89.

There are 21 universities in the German Empire, besides the Lyceum Hosianum at Braunsberg (9 teachers and about 30 students), which has only faculties of theology (Roman Catholic) and philosophy.

The following table gives the number of teachers for the summer semester 1890, and the number of students for the winter semester 1889-90:

There were besides a certain number of non-matriculated students-the majority, 1,945, at the University of Berlin.

In four universities, namely, Freiburg, Munich, Münster, and Würzburg, the faculties of theology are Roman Catholic; three are mixed, both Protestant and Roman Catholic-Bonn, Breslau, and Tübingen; and the remaining fourteen are Protestant.

Justice and Crime.

In terms of Judicature Acts in 1877 and 1879 a uniform system of law courts was adopted throughout the Empire not later than January 1, 1879, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of commercial and criminal law, though no uniform code of civil law has yet been adopted.

The lowest courts of first instance are the Amtsgerichte, each with a single judge, competent to try petty civil and criminal cases. There are 1,914 Amtsgerichte in the Empire, or one for every 24,481 inhabitants. The Landgerichte exercise a revising jurisdiction over the Amtsgerichte, and also a more extensive original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases, divorce cases, &c. In the criminal chamber five judges sit, and a majority of four votes is required for a conviction. Jury courts (Schwurgerichte) are also held periodically, in which three judges preside; the jury are twelve in

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number. There are 172 Landgerichte in the Empire, or one for every 272,417 of the population. The first court of second instance is the Oberlandesgericht. In its criminal senate, which also has an original jurisdiction in serious cases, the number of the judges is seven. There are twenty

eight such courts in the Empire. The total number of judges on the bench in all the courts above mentioned is 7,027. In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landesgericht, with eighteen judges, with a revising jurisdiction over the Bavarian Oberlandesgerichte. The supreme court is the Reichsgericht, which sits at Leipzig. The judges, seventy-nine in number, are appointed by the Emperor on the advice of the Bundesrath. The court exercises an appellate jurisdiction over all inferior courts, and also an original jurisdiction in cases of treason. It has four criminal and six civil senates.

The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 inhabitants over twelve years of age :

Of the persons convicted in 1888, 33,069 were under eighteen years of age; and 102,912 had been previously convicted.

Pauperism.

The relief of the poor is not an imperial function; but all the States except two have adopted the law of settlement passed by the Reichstag in June 1870. Bavaria and Alsace. Lorraine have independent poor-law legislation. According to the law of 1870, each commune (Gemeinde) or poor-law district (Armenverband) is bound to provide for its own poor, much as is the case in English parishes; and a settlement for purposes of poor-relief is generally obtained by a residence of two years in any one commune. Paupers who from any cause have no local settlement are looked after by the Government of the State to which they belong, and are called Landarmen, or national paupers. By an imperial law passed in 1874, any German entitled to poor-relief may apply for it to the commune in which he happens at the time to be, but that commune is empowered to recover expenses from the commune in which the pauper has a settlement. In 1885 the number of paupers receiving public relief was as follows:—

As preventive measures under this head must be mentioned the imperial laws introducing the compulsory insurance of workmen against sickness and insurance against accidents by employers (1883), and the compulsory insurance of workmen by the workmen themselves against old age (1888).

Finance.

The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed from the revenues arising from customs, certain branches of the excise, and the profits of the posts, telegraphs, and State railways. The individual States are assessed to make up any deficit in proportion to population.

The following tables exhibit the revenue and expenditure (in thousands of marks) for each of the years from 1886-87 to 189091, and the annual average of the two previous quinquennial periods. The figures for the last two years are taken from the budget estimates :-

The amounts raised by customs, excise, and stamps in the years 188687 to 1890-91 were as follows (in thousands of marks):

The sums paid in lieu of customs and excise by the parts of the Empire not included in the Zollgebiet are included in the above figures. The share of this direct imperial taxation is about 10s. 6d. per head.

The distribution of the expenditure (in thousands of marks) is as follows:

The following table gives the estimated total revenue and expenditure (including supplements) for the financial year ending March 31, 1892:

The extraordinary expenditure for 1891-92 includes an expenditure of 71,303,510 marks for military purposes, 51,062,150 marks for the navy, 30,700,000 for the interior, and 10,242,500 marks for the Imperial Debt.

For 1890-91 the Federal contributions (Matricular Beiträge) amount to 302,172,427 marks, to which the principal States contribute as follows:

Marks

176,524,157 Baden.

Marks

Marks

Prussia 11,003,328 Saxe-Weimar 1,956,993 Bavaria 39,664,667 Alsace-Lorr. 10,821,638 Oldenburg 2,128,908 Württemberg 14,568,459 Hesse 5,963,219 Brunswick 2,321,692 Hamburg . 3,232,835

Saxony

19,829,655 Meckl.

Schwerin.. 3,585,230

For the end of 1889 the total funded debt amounted to 976,502,000 marks, and to meet the extraordinary expenditure a loan of 257,007,000 marks was