Jedda, 30,000; Jerusalem, 28,000; Konieh, 25,000; Chios, 25,000; Bitlis, 25,000; Canea, 15,000; Tripoli, 30,000.

The Lebanon is governed by a Mutessarif (Christian), and has a special government. Its population is reckoned at 450,000.

Religion and Education.

The adherents of the two great religious creeds of the Turkish dominions in Europe and Asia, as reduced in its limits by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, are estimated to consist of sixteen millions of Mahometans, and of five millions of Christians. The Mahometans form the vast majority in Asia, but only one-half of the population in Europe. Recognised by the Turkish Government are the adherents of seven nonMahometan creeds-namely: 1. Latins, Franks, or Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of the descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the empire, and proselytes among Armenians, Bulgarians, and others; 2. Greeks; 3. Armenians; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans; 5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon ; 6. Protestants, consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians; 7. Jews. These seven religious denominations are invested with the privilege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the ChachamBaschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable influence.

The Mahometan clergy are subordinates to the Sheik-ulIslam. Their offices are hereditary, and they can only be removed by Imperial iradé. A priesthood, however, in the strict sense of the word, meaning a separate class, to whom alone the right of officiating in religious services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey. Not only may officers of the State be called upon to perform the rites, but any member of the congregation, who has the requisite voice and is of reputable character, may be desired to take the place of the Imam, and either recite verses of the Koran or lead in prayer. Owing to the fact that the Koran constitutes the code of law and charter of rights, as well as the religious guide, of the followers of Mahomet, there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the professors and interpreters of the law.

There is an annual pilgrimage to Mecca from all parts of the Mahometan world; in 1888-89, 58,537 arrived by land and 81,450 by sea, against 28,251 and 68,689 on the previous year.

The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a consequence, public schools have been long established in most considerable Turkish towns; while 'medresses,' or colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the prin

RELIGION AND EDUCATION-FINANCE

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cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establishments is rather limited.

The number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, of which 379 are in Constantinople. The number of the clergy is 11,600. Connected with the mosques are 1,780 elementary schools, where education is supplied gratis. The private revenue of the Evkaf (church), previous to the war of 1878, was 30,200,000 piastres (251,000l.) per annum, but they have now been reduced to 20,000,000 piastres (166,000l.). The expenses are reckoned at 15,000.000 piastres (125,0007.). The stipend of the Sheïk-ul-Islam 7,031,520 piastres (59,000l.), and those of the Naïbs and Muftis 7,876,646 piastres (66,0007.), are paid by the State. The principal revenues of the Evkaf are derived from the sale of landed property which has been bequeathed it, and which is known under the name of Vacouf. Threefourths of the urban property of the Empire is supposed to belong to the Vacouf. Purchasers of property of this description pay a nominal annual rent to the Evkaf; but should they die without direct heirs the property reverts to the Church. The amount paid direct by the State to the Evkaf in 1880 (the last regular budget) was 6,910,240 piastres (57,000l.). The budget for the same year shows the following amounts as paid by the State for religious purposes:-Toward the expenses of pilgrimage to Mecca and presents, 13,139,529 piastres (109,000); for the public reading of the Koran 12,747,395 piastres (106,000l.); subvention to Tekés (monasteries), 776,250 piastres (6,500l.).

Finance.

An official report from the British Embassy, dated September 1883, estimates the gross revenue at 13,686,000l., and expendıture 14,089,000l. An estimate for 1883-84 gave the receipts at T16,313,006, and expenditure £T16,223,016, including £T4,187,005, as a balance available for the State creditors. For 1889 the Budget Committee returned the following figures for the financial year from March 1888 to March 1889- -Revenue £T18,500,000; expenditure £T21,400,000; deficit £T2,900,000. The deficit for 1889-90, estimated at £T1,700,000, was met by reducing the expenses of the War Department to £5,500,000, the Ordnance Department to £T800,000, those of the Navy to £T600,000, by a reduction of 5 per cent. on the Budgets of other Ministers, and by the conversion of the Priority, and other debts into 4 per cents. The Budget for 1890-91 has not yet (Dec. 1890) been estimated. (For details see YEAR-BOOK, 1886, p. 505.)

According to an international arrangement of 1881, the debt was reduced to 106,437,2347. The Government agreed to hand over to an international commission the excise revenues of Turkey, to be administered by them entirely separate from the other Government administrations. The decree provided for a reduction of the capital and capitalisation of arrears of the Ottoman loans therein enumerated, and authorised a conversion of the debt by the Council of Administration in accord with the Government. The Council consists of six members, representing

England, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and the Priority Obligations of the Galata bankers, the English representative acting for the Dutch and Belgian bondholders. The decree provides for the application of the produce of the conceded revenues, on the 13th of March and 13th of September of each year, to payment of interest and amortisation of the debt, subject to the preferential deduction for 22 years of £T590,000 for interest and redemption of the 5 per cent. Privileged Obligations (Priority Bonds) (see YEAR-BOOK for 1888).

The following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital, the interest per cent., and the issue price, of the foreign loans of Turkey :

Of the above, those of 1854, 1871, and 1877 (Defence Loan) were secured on the Egyptian Tribute, payable to Turkey; that of 1855 was guaranteed by France and England.

Since September 1882 interest has been paid at the rate of 1 per cent. per annum on the reduced capital value. Bonds for 3,311,9207. of Group L Series A, loans have been redeemed by the action of the sinking fund, and for 1,706,000l. of the Priority Loan. Both interest and amortisation will increase when the Powers determine the amount payable by Montenegro, Servia, and Greece, in accordance with the Treaty of Berlin. The net amount of the revenues collected is as follows:

The gross amount of the revenues assigned for the service of the debt, which were collected during the years 1888-89 and 1889-90, was as follows:

A consolidation of the various loans (excepting the Railway Bonds, 14,211,4077.) has been carried on under a twofold form-first, that of registration; second, that of conversion. By the former, which was preliminary to conversion, bonds proportionate to the reduction of the capital of each loan were withdrawn, and the remainder returned with a new coupon-sheet attached thereto; by the latter, the bonds were exchanged at their reduced value against the new Converted Bonds. The various loans are consolidated in four series, viz. :-Series A, 7,183,8727., representing loans of 1858 and 1862; Series B. 10,241,0487., representing loans of 1860, 1863, and 1872; Series C, 30,832,5117., representing loans of 1865, 1869, and 1873; Series D, 43,968,3961., representing the General Debt. The Conversion commenced on November 20, 1884, and was closed on May 13, 1888. The amounts converted (Sept. 12, 1890) were consolidated as follows:

leaving an outstanding balance of 910,300l., of which 50,4207. represents the equivalent of Registered Bonds not converted, and 859,8807. that of Unregistered Bonds and coupons not presented for conversion up to May 13, and accordingly cancelled.

For the details of the arrangement, see YEAR-BOOK for 1888.

The position of the loans not entering into the Conversion arrangement was, on June 30, 1889, as follows: 1854, 1,657,0507.; 1855, 2,195,9007.; 1871, 5,378,7007.; 1877 (Defence Loan), 4,433,7001. There is in addition the war indemnity to Russia of 32,000,000l., which by negotiation it has been agreed to pay at the rate of 320,000l. per annum without interest. The revenues of the Province of Konia have been assigned as guarantee for this annual payment, but in January 1890 the Ottoman Government was £T686,734 in arrears in meeting its engagements. In 1890 a conversion of the 5 per cent. Priority Loan was effected by the issue of 7,827,2601. privileged 4 per cents.

A further conversion was also made of the Dahliés and the Sehim Annuities by the issue of 4,545,000l. Consolidation 4 per cent. Bonds.

In virtue of an Iradé dated May 29, 1886, the Government compounded its debt towards the Imperial Ottoman Bank for stock of £T4,500,000, which, along with stock for £T2,000,000 required for State purposes, is now issued. The stock was identical in type with the Priority Bonds, bearing interest at 5 per cent. per annum, and had a progressive sinking fund of 1 per cent. per annum, to be applied by purchase in the open market.

An annuity of £T390,000, to result from the customs of the Vilayets of Adrianople, Salonica, Broussa, Aïdin, and Syria, is affected to this purpose. The Government assigns its participation in the profits of the tobacco monopoly towards an increase of the Redemption Fund. The sum of £T1,000,000 was also obtained in 1888 from Baron Hirsch in exchange for certain railway privileges, and a further sum of £T1,188,000 in 1889 as an award for claims on the railway.

The internal debt now consists of £T7,500,000 Tasfié Bonds,' bearing no interest, but rec ived by the Government for arrears in taxes, &c., up to

the year 1882; £T1,140,000 owing to savings banks, £T500,000 advanced by the Pension Fund Department, £T130,000 by the agricultural banks, £T838,000 in bonds, £T500,000 through old forced loans. Interest on these advances is very irregularly paid.

Defence.
I. FRONTIERS.

Turkey occupies the South-Eastern corner of Europe and the Western portion of Asia.

The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified of late years. European Turkey has for frontier States in the north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Eastern Roumelia. The frontiers are mountainous towards the east, but at many points passage is easy.

The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by the Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by Thessaly, the Ægean Sea, the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, the shores of which are strongly fortified.

Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles.

The boundaries to the west are the Archipelago, the Mediterranean, Arabia Petrea, and the Red Sea. Its limits to the south are Central Arabia and the Persian Gulf, those to the east Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold on the Russian frontier being Erzeroum.

II. ARMY.

According to the existing system, the army consists of the Nizam or regular army, two bans of Redif or Landwehr, and the Mustahfiz or Landsturm. Non-Mahometans are not liable to military service, but have to pay an exemption tax, about six shillings per head per annum, levied alike on males of all ages. Military service is compulsory on all able-bodied Mahometans who have reached the age of 20. By the recruiting law of 1887 military service is rendered obligatory for all the Mussulman population of the empire, excepting only Constantinople and its suburbs, which still retains its privilege of exemption from military service. The ccnscripts are divided into two classes :

1. Those who can claim no reason for exemption.

2. Those who are infirm, sole supports of families, or who are exempt for various special reasons.

The 1st class is again divided into two classes, called 1st and 2nd levies (Tertib).

As many men as are required to fill the ranks of the standing army are taken for the 1st levy, and go through twenty years' service, six with the Nizam and first reserve (Ikhtiyats), eight years in the Redif, and six in the Mustahfiz or Landsturm.