that propaganda, and apparently uninfluenced by it. It has been a gradual change in the standard of conduct, in favour of sobriety as part of the behaviour expected of a gentleman. Total abstinence had nothing to do with it; there was no question of abstaining; but drunkenness has come to be regarded as discreditable and offensive, as bad-form' in short, instead of being quite the right and proper thing. It is idle to say that the lower classes are unaware of the fact, or uninfluenced by it. What do servants think of a drunken master? What do the people think of a drunken clergyman or Member of Parliament, let alone a Cabinet Minister or a judge? They think him a disgrace, however drunk they may get themselves, because a man in his position is expected to conform to a higher standard. And in proportion as they respect themselves, the lower classes are moved insensibly to make that standard their own. The influence is gradually permeating their ranks, and traces of it can be found very low down in the scale by those who care to look. The reader may not agree with me in attaching so much weight to this social factor, but no one can deny its existence, and I can call one unimpeachable witness to the importance of a social lead from the upper classes in regard to temperance. Dr. Dawson Burns, speaking of the decline of the movement in Ireland, remarks that the causes are not far to seek. As early as 1841, almost at the culmination of the popular movement, it was noticed with regret and apprehension that the upper and upper-middle classes, both Protestant and

6

Roman Catholic, had not joined the reform, and it was predicted that should this continue the want of moral support from such quarters would enfeeble and imperil the whole reform. The prediction was lamentably fulfilled.' In other words, a social movement, if it is to last, must begin from the top, which is just my point. Therefore, I regard the example of society as a most important factor in bringing about that organic change in tone which marks the last fifty or sixty years. And though the improvement in manners began quite early in the century, the chief credit for maintaining and developing it belongs to the steady influence of the Court of Queen Victoria. This is one of the many ways in which Her late Majesty's wise and high-minded rule worked quietly and unostentatiously for the benefit of her people.

A word in conclusion about the future. Most of the Forces of Temperance' discussed above will continue to work naturally and surely; but a good deal may be done actively to help on the improvement. The organisations have their work before them in pegging away at the further education of public opinion, and the more reasonable their tone, the greater will be the attention paid to them. Similarly with the Legislature. There is plenty of encouragement in the past for moderate and wellconsidered legislation, and as public opinion changes, measures of that kind may be brought forward with good prospects of success. Chapters VII. and VIII. are devoted to a more detailed consideration of this subject.

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CHAPTER VI

THE FORCES OF INTEMPERANCE

THE fundamental fact at the bottom of the drink question is the physiological action of alcoholic liquor on the animal organism. People like it and drink to please themselves. It is necessary to insist on this truism because-like a good many other truisms-it is perpetually forgotten. Most schemes of liquor legislation are in fact based on the assumption that people drink to please some one else. They are said to be in the murderous grip' of the trade, from which they would fain escape if the opportunity were allowed them. The murderous grip' is the extreme view, expressed in that rhetorical manner which is generally associated with lack of matter. There are other views less extravagant but still inspired by the idea that the moving force of intemperance is not so much the desire of the drinker as the greed of the purveyor, or, it may be, some external circumstance. The drunkard is 'led,'' tempted' by various devices, or he is to drink by the squalor of his surroundings and the lack of other pleasures. Such is the theory. I do not say there is nothing in it. There is something

enticed,' driven '

but not much. The essential and dominant factor is the desire, the determination, of the individual, and all attempts to ignore it, to exaggerate the importance of externals and to minimise the responsibility of the drinker for his own excess tend only to a distorted view of the problem, and to futile or mischievous legislation.

Man's liking for alcoholic liquor rests on physiological basis which can no more be argued away than the physiological distinction between the sexes. Wine maketh glad the heart of man. We are so formed by Nature, and though there are always people who think they can defy or alter the decrees of Nature, she has her way in the end and bates not a jot. It is futile to ignore the decree, however sure we may be that we could have arranged things better. It might, or might not, be to our advantage if we had been differently constituted and alcoholic products had no such effect as they have. But the effect is there; the wise man recognises and reckons with it. I am not going to enter on the weary question whether alcohol is good or bad, a food or a poison. All that is beside my point, more especially as no one drinks or wants to drink alcohol,' but only certain liquids which contain alcohol along with many other things. The point on which I wish to insist is that these liquids are agreeable to the human organism-and, for the matter of that, to most if not to all animals. They exhilarate, they remove depression, they lighten pain, they make glad the heart; and doing so they foster conviviality

and good-fellowship, they make the individual pleased with himself and others; they make life seem brighter and more enjoyable. Temporarily, of course, and only up to a certain point. Still they do it, and man desires them for that reason.

It follows that he desires them most and is apt to indulge in them to excess in those circumstances in which he has most need of their exhilarating properties-in circumstances, that is to say, of gloom and depression. Hence the influence of climate and weather, which are the most important of all the standing conditions affecting intemperance. The most drunken countries in Europe are Scandinavia, Northern Russia, and Scotland; the most sober, excluding Orientals, are Portugal, Spain, and Italy. I speak from observation, which is borne out by police records. The statement may seem at variance with the returns showing the consumption in different countries issued by the Board of Trade, but the apparent discrepancy is easily explained. For one thing the data on which the Board of Trade returns are based are in the case of several foreign countries too imperfect to be trustworthy for purposes of precise comparison. But, apart from that, consumption and intemperance have no necessary relation at all, especially when different countries are compared. Italy, Spain, and Portugal are winegrowing countries. Wine is made almost everywhere; it costs very little and everybody drinks it at all meals. Consequently the national consumption is comparatively high, but the individual is