Oxen and bulls, and cows.
Calves

Sheep and lambs

Swine and hogs

Bark

9892

342,579 2,988,933 1,593,947

the return so given for the month ending November, 30th, the assistance of farmers; he succeeded in removing their objec1857, and for the eleven months of 1857, ending the same tions, and convincing them of the advantages; and by means date. of local branches of the parent institution succeeded in pro11 months. curing complete returns for the kingdom. These have been 61,045 continued annually, and though there have been a few omis23,846 sions, are the most complete in their details of any yet known. 159,426 Though the absence of similar returns of England deprives 10,194 them of much of their value, they are still, conjoined with those of Ireland, of great importance. We give an abstract of the returns for 1856 and 1857. We may premise that the 1,657,053 returns are from holders paying a yearly rent of 101. and 153,302 upwards (exclusive of tenants of woods, villas, feuars, house260,881 holders and the like) in all the counties of Scotland except 1,014,353 Argyle, Inverness, Ross and Cromarty, Sutherland, and that 1,702,358 part of Bute which lies in Arran, in both years, and in Caithness, Sutherland, and Orkney, in 1856, where the returns are only from holders paying a rent of 207. and upwards. Woods, sheep-walks, houses, roads, and waste, are omitted in the calculation.

Wheat

Barley

Oats.

Month.

. number

"

cwts.

qrs.

"

2738 25,270 1459 28,686 456,804 100,597 197,296 14,831 36,368 152,770

In 1856 the number of occupants was 42,919; in 1857 10,960 there were 43,432. The number of acres under rotation of 120,887 crop was 3,545,191 in 1856; of which, of wheat there were 63,360 263,328, of barley 165,738, of oats 918,644, of rye 4020, .number. 6,645,000 119,508,200 of bere 15,368, of beans 40,470, of peas 4817, of vetches 413,389 18,231, of turnips 460,131, of potatoes 149,351, of mangold 346,268 3531, of carrots 1532, of cabbages 1485, of rape 1407, of 171.082 flax 2723, of turnip seed 1759, other crops 795, bare fallow 148,602 14,464, and grass and hay in rotation 1,475,775, which 823,358 leaves 1602 of the stated total unaccounted for. The pro177,820 duce was 7,270,952 bushels of wheat, 5,581,970 of barley, 31,966,381 of oats, 6,540,267 tons of turnips, and 413,800 tons of potatoes. In 1857 the number of acres under crop was 3,556,572, of which there were of wheat 223,152, of barley 198,387, of oats 938,613, of rye 5989, of bere 21;607, of beans 39,186, of peas 3687, of vetches 18,418, of turnips 476,691, of potatoes 139,819, of mangold 2803, of carrots 1401, of cabbages 1704, of rape 2032, of flax 1534, of turnip seed 2576, of other crops 577, of bare fallow 18,582, and of grass and hay in rotation 1,459,805, an excess of 989 acres over the stated total. The produce was 6,154,986 bushels of wheat, 6,494,534 of barley, 32,750,763 of oats, 6,690,109 tons of turnips, and 430,468 tons of potatoes. In 1856 the total number of horses was 179,853, of milch cows 209,960, of other cattle 473,384, of calves 197,709, of sheep and lambs 5,816,560, of swine 128,924. In 1857 the numbers were, of horses 185,409, of milch cows 303,912, of calves 195,198, of sheep and lambs 5,683,168, and of swine 140,354. In this account the horses, cows, and swine kept in towns are not included: and it is estimated that above 300,000 head of stock, and upwards of 200,000 acres of tillage are held by occupants not in these returns. Fife and Haddington show the greatest proportional acreage in wheat and in white crops generally, and Aberdeen and Argyle the greatest in turnips; those counties also possessing the greatest number of live stock.

lbs. 11,680,071 110,995,577 These returns apply, however, to the whole of the United Kingdom.

The remainder of the estimates for England rest only upon probabilities. Thus in the Journal of the Royal Society of Agriculture for 1856, the number of sheep in England and Wales is estimated at 27 millions, worth upon an average 30s. per head. About 10 millions are annually slaughtered for food, producing 800 millions of pounds of mutton, which at 6d. per lb. amounts to £20,000,000; and calculating the weight of each fleece at 4 lbs. 157,500,000 lbs. of wool is obtained, worth at 1s. 3d. per lb. nearly £10,000,000. The number of cattle has been estimated at 5,620,000, and that of swine at about 5,000,000. The number of horses is given by Mr. McCulloch in 1847, and they have probably not greatly increased since, as 1,500,000, the value of which he estimates at from £18,000,000 to £22,500,000. Such statements bear upon their faces evident marks of uncertainty, while the trouble any individual must have taken to procure materials even for a guess, shows the call there has been for this species of information.

In Scotland, where leases are, and have long been, almost universal, and where a less objectionable machinery was employed, statistical returns were much more easily obtained. Tenants there had indeed been long accustomed to the term, which some have asserted had no little influence in affrighting the farmers of England. In 1800, Sir John Sinclair had, with the assistance of the parochial ministers and others, produced a 'Statistical Account of Scotland,' giving in detail the state of every parish. This had been re-produced between 1834 and 1845, in so complete though bulky a form, and the agricultural improvements had been so great, as to justify the committee of ministers who had carried it through, in saying "They now present not merely a new statistical account, but in a great measure the statistical account of a new country." In 1847 the members of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, by whom agricultural improvement has been greatly promoted, felt the need of statisties, and by means of their secretary, Mr. Maxwell Hall, set about obtaining them. They memorialised Sir George Grey on the subject, and were desired to communicate a scheme, which was done, but without result. In 1852 they again memorialised the Home Department, offering their assistance if any project were legalised, but again without anything being effected. In 1853 the Government allowed the sum of £5000 to make the experiment, and Mr. Maxwell Hall determined to endeavour to obtain the returns though without any legal support. Complete returns were obtained for three counties, Haddington, Roxburgh, and Sutherland. In 1854 he travelled through a great part of Scotland requesting

In Ireland, where the interest felt might have been supposed to be less, statistical returns have been obtained in an excellent form, and with no opposition. The task of gathering the returns was confided to the constabulary in 1852, and they have been continued annually since. We append the return of 1857-In that year the returns show that there were 5,860,089 acres under crop, being an increase of 106,542 acres over the quantity in 1856. Of these 562,581 acres were in wheat, 1,978,878 in oats, 246,257 in barley, beans, peas, &c., showing a small increase of cereal crops generally, but a decrease on oats of 58,559 acres. crops there was a general increase of 45,637 acres, potatoes occupying 1,146,920 acres, an increase of 42,216 acres, and flax had decreased from 106,311 acres in 1856 to 98,074 acres in 1857; and turnips had decreased 4,487 acres. Meadow and clover had increased from 1,302,787 acres to 1,369,421 acres.

On green

;

The produce of the 5,753,681 acres in cultivation in 1856, had been 2,738,163 barrels of wheat of 20 stone each 14,778,045 barrels of oats of 14 stone each; 1,367,453 barrels of barley of 16 stone each; 50,709 barrels of beer of 16 stone; 72,165 barrels of rye of 20 stone; 431,561 bushels of beans and peas; 35,268,345 barrels of potatoes of 20 stone each; 4,581,172 tons of turnips; 287,838 tons of mangel wurzel; 332,650 tons of cabbages; 3,006,553 stones (14 lbs.) of flax; and 2,492,732 tons of hay. The total number of holders of land was 592,489; of whom 36,474 held not more than one acre; 82,035 not more than five acres; 179,931 not more than fifteen acres; 138,424 not more than

thirty; 71,156 not more than fifty; 53,279 not more than one hundred; 21,292 not more than two hundred; 8243 not more than five hundred; and only 1655 held upwards of five hundred acres.

Live stock, except sheep, had increased remarkably. The number of horses was 600,693, an increase of 27,285; the number of cattle 3,618,544, an increase of 30,686; the number of sheep 3,448,676, a decrease of 245,618. Pigs numbered 1,252,152, an increase of 333,627.

Road contractors in Ulster are required to keep the roadsides and fences free from weeds, and surveyors in the other provinces are recommended to obtain authority from grand juries, &c., to enforce in them similar regulations.

Most foreign countries have found the necessity of having statistical returns of their agricultural produce. Austria, Prussia, France, Denmark, Hungary, Belgium, and the United States of America, have all such returns more or less perfect, among which those of Belgium take a high rank, and are nearly equal to those of Scotland. Such statistics for the whole of a kingdom are highly valuable for the regulation of the inhabitants of that kingdom; but if we possessed them for the whole of the civilised world, what are called the chances of agriculture would probably be reduced to a certainty, and the price of food would remain with little or no variation.

AGRODROMA. [ALAUDINE, S. 2.]

AGROSTEMMA (from ȧypós, a field, and σréuua, a crown), a genus of plants belonging to the Silenious division of the order Caryophyllacea. It has several species, the best known of which is the Corn-Cockle, which is now referred to the genus Lychnis, or Githago. AHUN. [CREUSE.] AIGUESMORTES. [GARD.]

|

Oriental literature; but it is said that the best works it contained have been carried away to the royal library of St. Petersburg. The Armenians have several large churches, and there is also a synagogue. The chief trade is in silk and honey; there is also some transit trade, as the town lies on the road between the port of Batoum and Tiflis, being 80 miles E. from the former and 105 miles W. from the latter.

ALAGOAS, a province of Brazil, which, up to about 1840, was a district, or comarca, of the province of Pernambuco ; but, on account of its increasing population and wealth, was formed into a separate province, which is under the administration of its own governor. It is situated between 9° and 10° S. lat., 36° and 38° 30′ W. long. It borders on the south of the province of Seregipe del Rey, from which it is separated by the Rio de San Francisco, along the northern banks of which it extends to the great cataract, called Cachoeira de Paulo Affonso. On the west and north it is surrounded by the province of Pernambuco, from which it is separated for a considerable space by the Rio Unna. The Atlantic washes its eastern side. In length, from east to west, it extends about 150 miles; its average width probably does not exceed 60 miles. The area is about 9000 square miles.

Two-thirds of this surface are covered with mountains. They form the southern declivity of the elevated and hilly table-land, which occupies nearly the whole of the country, and projects into the Atlantic between 3° and 9° S. lat. These mountains come close up to the river San Francisco as far east as the mouth of the Rio Sacare, and terminate in Alagoas, at a distance of about 20 miles, or little more, from the sea. This region is almost entirely covered with wood, and contains many high timber-trees, which afford a conAIGUILLON. [LOT-ET-GARONNF.] siderable article of exportation. The valleys and more AIKIN, ARTHUR, the eldest son of John Aikin, M.D., gentle slopes of the mountains exhibit a considerable degree was born in 1784. Arthur Aikin began his literary career, we of fertility. Along the eastern base of the mountains exbelieve, as editor of The Annual Review;' upon the title- tends an undulating or rather hilly tract, which occupies page of the first six volumes of which—1803-1808—his name | about half the country between the declivity and the sea. appears as editor. His earliest scientific work was 'The It is likewise wooded, and has a light soil, very fit for the Manual of Mineralogy,' of which the first edition was pub-culture of cotton, which is rapidly extending. The country lished in 1814. Besides these he was the author of a Tour in along the sea-shore, and at a distance of about 10 miles or North Wales,' a 'Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy,' somewhat less from it, is low, level, and covered with a thick and a 'Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures; and also of alluvium, which has been brought down by the numerous numerous papers in various scientific journals. For a long small rivers that rise on the eastern declivity of the mountainseries of years Mr. Aikin was the resident secretary of the region, and deposited along the edge of the undulating tract. Society of Arts, and a frequent contributor to its Transac- This soil is of the best quality, and fit for the cultivation of tions. He was also one of the oldest fellows of the Linnæan every kind of intertropical productions. A considerable and Geological societies. Mr. Aikin was a man of quiet portion, however, of this tract is still covered with swamps, retiring habits, and outlived his scientific reputation; but and the tide, which rises along the coast from 4 to 5 feet, was well known in scientific circles as one of the most enters the mouths of the rivers, and has changed the adjacent regular frequenters of the meetings of the learned societies in low countries into lagunes. The most considerable of these the metropolis, and was generally esteemed. He died at his lagunes is the Lake of Manguaba, from which the river house in Bloomsbury, London, April 15, 1854, in his 81st Alagoas runs to the sea in a southern direction. It is stated to be 30 miles long, and about 3 miles wide at an average, and consists of two lagunes united by a strait. The northern is called Lagoa do Norte, and the southern Lagoa do Sul. Its water is salt. Only canoes can navigate the river Alagoas, which carries its water to the sea. The rich plantations situated around the Lagoa do Sul carry their produce to the northern lake and the town of Alagoas, whence it is transported to the harbours of Taragua and Pajassara. Farther south is the Lagoa do Siquiba, which is 15 miles long from north to south, with an average width of 3 miles. A river of the same name runs southwards to the sea.

year.

AIRA, a genus of Grasses belonging to the tribe Seslerieæ, and distinguished by possessing a lax panicle, two-flowered glumes, the outer pale terete on the back, and a dorsal awn. There are several species, but that which is best known is A. caespitosa, the Tufted Hair-Grass. It has long and flat leaves, with a fibrous perennial root. It flowers in the beginning of August, and reaches a height of four feet. It grows naturally on marshy damp soils, in the form of large tufts. It is a wiry harsh grass, and is rejected by domestic animals. It may, however, be advantageously sown as a cover for game, and also by the side of ponds and marshes for snipe and wild fowl. (Lawson, Acrostographia.)

AIRE, RIVER. [YORKSHIRE.]

AITONIA (after Mr. W. Aiton, for many years headgardener at Kew) a genus of plants belonging to the order Meliacea. The A. Capensis is a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and is cultivated in our greenhouses.

AKHALZIKH, a town in Russian Armenia, situated near the watershed between the Black Sea and the Caspian, on a feeder of the Kur, which flows towards the south-east from the Perengah Dagh, in 41° 40′ N. lat., 43° 10' E. long. Population about 15,000, who are chiefly Armenians. It was formerly the chief town of a pashalic in Turkish Georgia; since the cession of which province to Russia, it is the capital of the province of Akhalzikh. [GEORGIA.] The town is fortified, and of considerable extent. The most remarkable building after the citadel is the mosque of Ahmed, which is built on the model of that of Santa Sophia at Constantinople. Connected with the mosque is a college, and a library rich in

Though all the rivers which disembogue along this coast are small, and have bars at their mouths, with so little water on them that sea vessels of even the smallest size cannot enter them, the province has a few harbours sufficiently deep for vessels of moderate magnitude. The most northern are the harbours of Pajassara and Taragua, which are close together and separated by a low tongue of land. The port of Taragua is the better of the two. Merchandise disembarked at this port is transported by land three miles to the Lagoa do Norte, and there embarked on canoes for Alagoas and other towns. Cururippe, which is farther south, is a harbour of moderate size, formed by a reef extending to a distance of 300 yards from the shore, which breaks the fury of the sea. The harbour may be entered by two breaks in the reef, but the anchorage is not generally good. The river which falls here into the sea bears the same name, and is navigable for canoes for several miles, but has very little water on the bar at its mouth.

The only river which here deserves to be noticed is the

of a grayish white, with specks of a brown colour. They Motacillince (Wagtails), under his family Sylviada (Warfrequently rear two broods of young during the summer.

They are almost all birds of passage; for even in Britain, where some remain during the winter, the greater number flock together and migrate, either southward or to the seacoast. During these migrations immense numbers are caught in nets for the table, particularly on the continent, where small birds are more sought after for this purpose than in Britain.

Localities.-Europe and America.

Mr. Swainson considers this as the Fissirostral type. Example:-Alauda arvensis. This is the Alouette, Alouette Ordinaire, and Alouette des Champs of the French; Lodola, Lodola Canterina, Lodola di Passo, and Lodola di Montagna of the Italians; Feld Lerche of the Germans; Hedydd and Uchedydd of the Ancient British; and Skylark (in Scotch Laverock) of the modern British.

The Skylark is too well known, from its inexpressibly beautiful song, chanted forth far up in the air when at liberty and in its natural state, to require any description. Food.-Insects and their larvæ, with many sorts of seeds and grain.

Nest. On the ground. Eggs four or five, greenish white, spotted with brown.

Localities.-All the parts of Europe; also in Asia and the northern parts of Africa, but not in the south of that vast continent (Temm.); the whole of Europe within the temperate zone, many parts of Asia, and the north of Africa. (Selby.)

Calendula. (Linn.)

Bill thick, much compressed; the culmen curved and convex; the commissure arched; the tip of the upper mandible wide above and inflexed. Wings long or moderate; the first quill very small and spurious; the second nearly equal to the third and fourth; lesser quills short, emarginate. Tail slightly forked. Lateral toes equal. Africa. The Dentirostral type-C. magnirostris, Õis. d'Afr.,' pl. 193. (Sw.)

Sub-genera :-Myrafra, Horsf.-Bill as in Calendula. Wings short, rounded; greater quills hardly longer than the secondaries and tertials; the first quills spurious, half the length of the second, which is shorter than the third; the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth equal, and longest. Tail short, even. Legs long.-M. Javanica, Linn. Tr.,' xiii. 159. (Sw.)

Braconyx, Sw. (Brachonyx).—Bill as in Calendula. Hinder claw very short. Wings and tarsi much lengthened. Africa. (Sw.)

Agrodroma. (Sw.)

Bill slender, considerably compressed; both mandibles of equal length; the tip of the upper one not reflected over the lower, and with a small notch, almost obsolete. Wings long; the first four quills nearly equal; the rest rapidly diminishing, and emarginate at their tips; tertials lengthened, pointed, as long as the quills. Tail moderate, even. Legs pale, long, slender. Tarsus longer than the middle toe. Lateral toes equal, but the outer claw shorter than the inner. Colour brown, lark-like. Distribution universal. The Insessorial or pre-eminent type-Agrodroma rufescens, 'Enl.,' 661, f.l. (Sw.)

Macronyx. (Sw.)

Bill slender, compressed, thrush-like, entire; nostrils large, naked, the aperture lateral. Wings short; the primaries not longer than the tertials, the first four of equal length; secondaries long, emarginate. Tail moderate, even. Feet enormous. Tarsus and hinder toes very long, and of equal length. Lateral toes unequal, the inner shortest. Africa. The Rasorial type-M. flavicollis, Ois. d'Afr.,' pl. 195; M. flavigaster, Sw., Birds of West Africa,' ('Naturalists' Library,' Ornithology, vol. vii., p. 215.)

Certhilauda. (Sw.)

Bill slender, lengthened, more or less curved; nostrils round, naked. Wings very long; the first quill spurious; the three next nearly equal. Tail moderate, even. Feet lengthened; the lateral toes equal; length of the hinder claw variable, although typically short and straight. Africa. The Tenuirostral type-Certhilauda longirostra, 'Ois. d'Afr.,' 192; C. bifasciata, Rupp., Atlas,' plate 5; C. nivosa, Sw., 'Birds of West Africa (vol. vii., p. 215.)

Such are Mr. Swainson's views as to the arrangement of this sub-genus. [FRINGILLIDE.] The genus Anthus, Bechst., is placed by Mr. Swainson at the end of his sub-family

blers).

Fossil Larks.

Dr. Buckland figures a lark (Alauda) among the land Mammifers and Birds of the third period of the Tertiary Series, in the first plate of the illustrations of his 'Bridgewater Treatise.' He had previously. noticed the remains of the lark in Kirkdale Cave. (Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,' pp. 15, 34, plate xi., ff. 24, 25.

ALBRECHT, WILHELM, was born in Germany, in 1786. He was one of the most distinguished pupils of Thaer, in the agricultural school at Möghin, in Prussia; and he afterwards taught rural economy in Fellenberg's school at Hofwyl. In 1819 he was employed by the government of Nassau to edit a weekly publication devoted to agricultural subjects; and in the following year he was made director of an experimental agricultural school, established at Idstein. The experimental farm was transferred to Geisberg, near Wiesbaden, and it became at once distinguished as the source of agricultural improvements for the west of Germany. As it was found impossible constantly to employ all the pupils on the farm, Albrecht determined to open the school, during the six winter-months, for instruction in the theory of agriculture; while in April of each year the students went to the homes of their parents, or to some farming establishment, in order to familiarise themselves with the practical labours of an agriculturist. During the life of Albrecht the school was highly successful. "The best students for our institute," said he, are young men from about eighteen to twenty-two, who, after distinguishing themselves at the primary schools, have followed agriculture for some years at home, or on some well-managed farm; they bring a well-disposed mind, not fatigued with study, nor distracted by too many pursuits.' While managing these establishments, Albrecht, besides his weekly paper, edited the Annals of the Agricultural Society of Nassau;' to which society he was perpetual secretary. Albrecht died in 1848,

at his house in Franconia, whither he had retired on resigning the direction of the establishment at Geisberg, a short time previously. (Nouvelle Biographie Universelle, 1852.)

ALBUCA (from albus, white), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Liliaceo. The species are mostly found at the Cape of Good Hope. They are cultivated in this country, and require the treatment of greenhouse bulbs. ALBURNUM, ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE. [CHEMISTRY, S. 1.]

ALDEHYDAMMONIA. [CHEMISTRY, S. 2.]
ALDEHYDE. [CHEMISTRY, S. 1.]

ALDEHYDIC ACID. [CHEMISTRY, S. 1.]

ALHAGI (from the Arabic Aghul or Algul), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Leguminosa. The species are under-shrubs or herbs with simple leaves and minute stipules. The flowers are red, and disposed in racemes along the peduncles.

Mesopotamia, and other countries of the East. This plant yields A. Maurorum is a native of the deserts of Egypt, Syria, It is chiefly gathered in the neighbourhood of Tabriz where a species of manna, which is called Trungibin or Terengabin. the plant grows abundantly. The manna is a natural exudation from the leaves and branches of the plant, and is most the manna falls from heaven on the plant. It first appears abundant during hot weather. In Arabia it is supposed that in the form of a small drop as of honey, which goes on increasing in size till it is about as large as a coriander seed. The manna yielded by this plant does not appear to be imported into this country. It is principally made use of at the present day in Persia, and is known by the name of Persian Manna. It is employed as food for cattle. Two other species, A. Camelorum and Nipaulensis, are described by botanists, and cultivated in the greenhouses of this country. They also yield manna.

ALIASKA, a peninsula projecting from the N.W. coast of North America into the Pacific Ocean, and separating, together with the Aleutian Islands, the Kamtchatka Sea from the Pacific. The large lake of Iliamna or Shelikoff, and the isthmus which separates that lake from Cook's Inlet, may be considered as forming its natural N.E.boundary. A river, called Kortchak, or Bristol River, issues from the lake, and falls into Bristol Bay, or the Bay of Kanïsko, which washes the N.W. side of the peninsula. From the lake of Iliamna the peninsula extends in a general direction from E.N.E. to W.S.W. between 59° and 54° 40′ N. lat.,

Meanwhile he had been gaining the distinctions awarded to success in his profession. In 1825 he was elected asThe Russians, who have a few settlements almost entirely sociate of the Royal Academy. In 1835 he became R.A. inhabited by natives on both coasts, have introduced agri- In 1838 he was chosen, on the death of Mr. Watson, to be culture, and though no kind of grain succeeds, the inhabit-president of the Scottish Academy. On the death of Wilkie ants of the few dispersed villages raise considerable quan- in 1840 Allan was appointed to succeed him as her tities of potatoes and turnips, and keep fowls. They derive Majesty's Limner for Scotland; and in 1842 he received their principal subsistence from fishing, the sea abounding the honour of knighthood. Sir William Allan was best in cod, soles, turbots, and several kinds of mollusca. Whales known by his Russian and Circassian genre pieces, and by are frequent along the northern coast, but rather rare on the his Scottish historical works. In all of them there is much southern. Morses in immense numbers visit the northern skill and refinement, but in none any very evident marks of coast, and their teeth constitute the principal article of a high order of genius. But he was also a very successful commerce, since the sea-otters, which formerly were very painter of a special class of portraits, such, for instance, as plentiful, have been nearly destroyed by the avidity of the his Scott in his Study Writing,' and its companion, 'Scott inhabitants. Rein-deer, bears, and red foxes, are the only in his Study Reading; and in his later years he essayed large animals which are found in great numbers, but towards with success the more laborious task of depicting scenes of the east are also wolves and a kind of mountain-sheep, actual warfare. Of these the most important were two perhaps also the musk-ox. Seals and sea-lions visit the pictures of the Battle of Waterloo,' which met with the deeper inlets, and afford to the inhabitants some additional marked approval of the Duke of Wellington, and one of articles of commerce. which his grace purchased; the 'Battle of Preston Pans;'