holes, and how long the body of the shirt. They replied Mr. DAVIS would not go the length of saying that the paper exaggerated the advantages of the machine, but he had great doubts whether it would do all that was represented. He employed between two and three thousand sempstresses and tailors, and owing to the demand which had grown up for the finer and better class of clothing, there was a difficulty in getting hands for the coarser kind of work fitted for exportation-such as moleskins, elveteens, corduroys, &c. He had therefore watched the machine with great interest, ever since its introduction into this country; and he had lately obtained one himself, which he had placed in the hands of most skilful artizans, but it did not work satisfactorily, though he could not say whether the fault was in the machine or those who worked it. He did not say this with a view of throwing cold water on the machine, as he believed, if the difficulties were overcome, it was likely to prove a great help to the labour market, which, owing to the luxury of the times and the demand for the fine articles of clothing, was very badly supplied with persons to do the coarser kinds of work. The trial shown them that night was made with silk, which would bear great friction, far greater than cotton. He did not think they could with cotton make five hundred, or even two hundred and fifty stitches a minute, as the difficulty he had to contend with was its continual snapping, owing to the friction-and it had a similar effect with thread. He thought that perhaps the difficulty might be in some measure counteracted by the alteration of the angles at which the reels of thread were placed, so as to reduce the friction. Mr. JUDKIN said, that he could produce testimonials from more than 100 persons who had used the machine of its efficiency, those who had originally purchased one having increased their number to two, three, four, or five; and in the Sing Sing prison, at New York, it was successfully and economically worked by convicts. The fact was, Mr. Davis had only had the machine three or four days, and had been offered to have somebody sent him to instruct parties in its working, which, however, he had not required. He was glad to receive all suggestions for the improvement of the machine, and, whenever feasible, he would adopt them. But the fact was they could use the finest thread, much weaker than could be used by hand. By hand the thread went through and through with every stitch taken, causing great friction and loss of strength, which rendered recourse to waxing necessary. With the machine it was not so. The thread only entered the cloth once, and then remained; whilst the stitches were so regular in regard to their tightness, that comparatively little pressing was required. The cause of the thread snapping was this, they had under the machine a small India-rubber pulley, attached to a metallic spring, which held down the first loop whilst the second was passing through it to complete the stitch, and if that were not properly adjusted there would be too great a strain on the thread, which would consequently break. "There was a gentleman in the room, who supplied cotton to some American houses, who could speak to the efficiency of the machine, and to the sails of the Great Republic having been made by it. Mr. WALDO said, that from information he had received from America, he could speak to the sails of the Great Republic, which were 28,000 feet square, having been made by a similar machine to that on the table, and he was assured that two machines made one suit of the sails in six days, which could not, in the ordinary way, have been prepared under 1200 days. Mr. HEAL could easily understand why, if Mr. Davis, had only had the machine three or four days, it did no work to his satisfaction. It took nearly a month before he (Mr. Heal) could get it to work satisfactorily, from the nicety of manipulation required in its adjustment. In reply to a question, Mr.JUDKIN stated that the article being made was forced forward, as the stitches were made by means of a lever acting on a crank, which could be so adjusted as to change the length of the stitch from onefourth of an inch to fifty in an inch. The CHAIRMAN had been requested to ask whether the machine would make the stitch in harness leather, such as he held in his hand, as well as in cloth. Mr. JUDKIN replied it would make a stitch in the leaHe had a machine preparing ther, but not the same. which would make the same stitch, and only use one thread. Mr. ELLIOTT thought that, as regarded harness work, this machine could only do a very small part, and he was afraid that the stitch would not be sufficiently strong for the purpose of bearing the strain in the dragging of carriages. He thought if they once obtained a hold of the thread, the whole of the seam made by the machines could be run out. Mr. DAVIS, in justice to Mr. Judkin, must bear his testimony that when the seam was once made, it was stronger than that made by hand. Mr. JUDKIN did not say that the machine on the table was adapted for harness making, though he would shortly have one out which would be so; but the thickness of the material would make no difference in the working, all they had to do being to put in stronger needles. As regarded the running of the seam, he might observe, if they took a stocking, cut off the toe, and obtained a hold of the thread, they might ravel it If, howall out,--so also, if they obtained hold of the thread, they might draw out his or any other seain. ever, there were a hole in the stocking, it did not ravel out, neither, if they broke one or two stitches in his seam, would it have any material effect on the rest. Mr. ELLIOTT thought that though it could not be said the machine would do everything, it would be a great practical blessing to this country. He believed it required a real artist in sewing to make a button-hole, and that there were as few really good workers as really good writers. The object which it appeared to him would be effected by Mr. Judkin's machine would be the putting down of the low, coarse, and cheap labour, and temporarily throw out of employment those who could only get 6d., Sd., or 10d. a day for their work. A great deal had been said about the badness of the pay of this class of needlewomen, but he believed they had been generally paid as much as they were worth-as their work was of such a nature that no good house-wife would have it in her house. It would be far better for this class of persons to be forced to look for some out-door employment, where, if she earned no more, she might get a little strength in A large her limbs and a little colour in her cheeks. number of these sempstresses were married, and, however strange it might appear to say so, he believed that it would be for their own benefit and that of society, if they were thrown out of employment altogether-as the husband would then bring home more of his own earnings, and the wife would be properly employed in economising the money. The best state of society was that in which the woman did not earn any money, but where the husband worked, and the wife was employed in making the 8s. or 10s. go to the utmost extent in making a comfortable home, and in exercising her natural talents in the development of domestic virtue and economy. He considered Mr. Judkin, and the inventors of all similar machines, as benefactors of society; and if any one could invent a washing machine which would take in the dirty linen at one end and send it out ready for wear at the t other, he would be deserving of the highest honours, as association, that the non-responsible stock-holder (comthere was no worse kind of labour, or one more subver-manditaire) takes no part in the management. If he sive of all domestic happiness, than washing. The CHAIRMAN then moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Judkin for his valuable paper, which was unanimously passed. The Secretary announced that, at the meeting of Wednesday next, the 25th instant, a Paper would be read "On Laws relating to Property in Designs and Inventions, and the Effect of such Laws on the Arts and Manufactures," by Mr. Thomas Webster, M.A., F.R.S. CONFERENCE ON STRIKES AND perform any act of management (acte de gestion), his "This rule is without exception. A shareholder cannot be employed by the association, even by power of attorney, and it seems to be a corollary from the same rule, that a clerk or servant cannot become a shareholder without incurring the full responsibility of a managing partner. "In order to constitute a commandite association, it is necessary that in the deed of association it is agreed that such and such of the associates be excluded from management, and that their risk be limited to the amount of their respective contributions. According to Pardessus, the ablest French writer on commercial law, this need WITH reference to the proposed conference, the not be stated in express terms, no other explanation being Council desire to make it known that the posi- necessary than that such and such are non-responsible tion taken by them is strictly neutral,-no arbi-shareholders; that expression being deemed sufficient without the periphrasis which it would otherwise be tration or interference being contemplated on their necessary to employ. part. "The law of France does not require that the deed The Council also wish it to be borne in (l'acte) of association be published. It may, like an mind that the discussion will be raised on ques- it is imperatively necessary that an extract be published, ordinary deed of partnership, be executed in private, but tions involved in Strikes and Lock-outs generally, stating that among the associates there are so many and not upon the facts or merits of any particu- shareholders of limited responsibility, but without indilar strike; and the invitations to attend the meet-cating their names. The extract' must also announce ing go out to all parties generally, and are not in what sums or in what species of property (objets) their contributions consist, and whether they have been paid up confined to any particular class or opinions. or still remain to be paid up. If the publication of the The Council have come to an unanimous reso-extract be neglected, the association is deemed an ordinary lution not to express any opinion, either individually or collectively. partnership. (Pardessus, tome 4ème, p. 118.) "This annunciation is deemed by Pardessus of the highest importance, as it is the only mode of informing third parties who deal with the association that, in addition to the personal responsibility of the managing partners, the capital of the association is composed of such and such sums, of which a creditor can demand payment of the shareholders, unless these latter can prove that they have already paid up the whole amount of their contributions. A false annunciation is deemed an act of swindling (une escroquerie), and is punishable as such. "The contribution of a shareholder may consist of secrets of arts and manufactures, but their adoption must not in any way be accompanied by acts of management. This prohibition, however, does not extend to transactions between a shareholder acting in his individual capacity on the one part, and the association acting by its managing PARTNERSHIP AND LIMITED LIABILITY. At a time when the subject of strikes and lock-outs is exciting the attention, not only of the commercial world, but of all classes of society, and by many it is considered that the existing law of partnership in this country, preventing the operative or small capitalist from readily investing his savings in mercantile undertakings, has an important bearing on the question; it will not be thought out of place to call attention, shortly, to that species of partnership which exists in France, and known by the name of Société en commandité. Partnerships of a similar kind exist in many other countries, including most of the American States. The following description of these part-partners on the other. nerships is taken from an early edition of a work by Mr. "Thus, C., a merchant, may be a shareholder in a C. Wordsworth, published in November, 1841.* commandité association, of which A. and B. are the re"Commandité associations consist of two or more in-sponsible managing partners. A. and B., acting for the dividuals, of whom one or more undertake the manage- association, may buy from, or sell to C., without in any ment, and are held indefinitely responsible for all engage-way affecting the rights or immunities of the latter, as a ments, as in the case of ordinary partnerships; and the others are mere shareholders, responsible only to the amount of their contributions, either paid-up, or contracted to be paid (qu'ils ont versé ou promis de verser) into the joint-stock of the association. The first, called commandités, may be designated managing partners; the second, called commanditaires, non-responsible shareholders, or simply shareholders. "When there are several responsible partners (commandits), the association, as between them and the public, is an ordinary partnership; but, as between the non-responsible shareholders and the public, it is a privileged company. "It is an essential condition of this species of trading The Law of Mining, Banking, Insurance, and General Joint-stock Companies, &c. By C. Wordsworth, Esq., Barrister at Law. Second Edition, 1854. non-responsible shareholder. Moreover, as a shareholder may sell goods to, and so become the creditor of, the commandité association to which he belongs, so also may he lend money thereto. 66 Although acts of management are thus strictly forbidden to the shareholder, this does not preclude him from taking a part in the deliberations of the association. He may audit accounts, determine what dividends shall be paid, whether instalments shall be called in, and even what engagements or speculations shall be entered into. All that is prohibited to him is management. The reason of this distinction is obvious. An act of management would create an impression with third parties that they had the security of his responsibility; hence the law very properly attaches responsibility to such an act. An act of control, on the other hand, has no reference to third parties, but merely regards the security of the share. holders; hence the law as properly permits such an act. "For the same reason the name of a shareholder of creditors. This, however, does not appear to be a very cannot form part of a firm or title. Were it so third parties would have no means of distinguishing between shareholders and managing partners, and commandité associations might obtain an undue degree of credit. The managing partners, however, may add the words and Company to their own names, as that merely indicates that they have associates. Thus a commandité associate may exist between A., B., and C., whereof A. is the sole manager. The object of calling the firm A. and Co., is merely to announce that A. is not alone; but whether his associates B. and C. be ordinary partners or mere shareholders, depends on the fulfilment of the legal conditions already specified. It may not be out of place here to remark, that he who makes use of the words "and Company" (and Co.), without having an associate, is deemed guilty of fraud or swindling (coupable d'escroquerie). serious difficulty. The law itself contains within its bosom an adequate remedy. The amount of the contri||butions of the shareholders must be published at the time the association is declared. If this account afterwards turn out to be palpably incorrect, it would be an annunciation proved to be false,' (une énonciation dont le faussete serait prouvée), and, as such, would be punishable by the penal law. 66 If the capital of an association be divided into equal shares, such shares as are held by non-responsible shareholders are deemed to be transferable; but where the capital is not so diviaed, a shareholder cannot transfer his interest without the consent of his associates. A managing partner cannot in any case retire without the consent of his associates, nor does his retirement relieve him from responsibility to third parties, if the association subsequently fail, being insolvent at the time of his retirement. This is only a particular case of the general rule whereby the managing partners of a commandite association are considered with reference to third parties as members of an ordinary partnership. The shareholder, we have seen, is responsible only to the amount of his contribution. For that amount he may be sued by a creditor, but he is relieved from responsibility by proving that he has paid up all instalments. If he cannot do this the creditor obtains judgment to the amount which still remains to be paid up. "A very simple remedy for this and some other difficulties, would be the publication of the lists of shareholders with the amounts for which they might be responsible. By means of published lists, clerks might be permitted to hold shares, and the association might be permitted to avail itself of the services of any competent shareholder without the least risk of generating deception in either case. A publication yearly or half-yearly, or, what would be better, a simple registration, would also absolve shareholders who have disposed of their shares." It appears that the principles of this description of partnerships were adopted by the Irish parliament, which passed, the 21 and 22 Geo. III., c. 46, the Anonymous Partnership Act. This act does not seem ever to have been acted upon, probably because it was clogged with two conditions,-first, a limitation of the partnerships to fourteen years; and, secondly, that a subscriber should pay up the whole amount of his shares within twelve months. Further information on the subject of partnerships with limited liability will be found in a Report published in 1849, by the Society for Promoting the Amendment of the Law. THE WORKING CLASSES OF NASSAU,* The pamphlet referred to in the heading to this article, is the result of a well-spent leisure in the Duchy of Nasinformation, interesting to all who study the effect which sau, last summer, and will be found to contain a mass of peculiar institutions and local circumstances must produce on industrial progress. The author says: most My letters were at first intended for the Society of Letter I. appeared in No. 31 of that periodical; but after Arts' weekly Journal, and indeed, the greater portion of I had fathomed my subject, and when I was enabled to appreciate thankfully the valuable assist ance friends, it became evident that my papers would be readily afforded me by my German connexions and more adapted for quiet consideration, or reference in a pamphlet form, than suited for cursory perusal in detached fragments. It was accordingly decided that they should be printed in the present mode, for distribution to Members of the Society and others taking an interest in industrial questions, and for being offered for perusal to the Working Classes themselves, through the wards of three hundred, and affording a most convenient medium of the Institutions in Union, now numbering upmeans for promulgating whatever may serve to promote the intellectual development, and consequently to improve the physical condition, of the British artisan." "A question has arisen in the French courts, whether a shareholder may not be compelled to refund any dividends he may have previously received. Pardessus says there is no absolute rule in this case, but it must be decided by circumstances.' This vagueness is certainly a great defect, common enough in the English law, but quite unworthy of the Code de Commerce. It appears to me that to require that actual profits which have been drawn and expended be refunded, destroys one of the chief advantages of the law of commandite associations. The great utility of this species of association consists in its tendency to promote the aggregation of small capitals which cannot be employed individually. Now, if shareholders were liable to be called upon to refund the consumed profits of a long series of years, and thereby to be reduced to beggary, the inducement to embark capital in such associations would be destroyed, and the rule of law become a dead letter. Pardessus, who is extremely cautious in giving a decided opinion where the law is vague, contents himself by saying: c'est donc d'apres les circonstances les clauses rendues publiques, et la bonne foi des opérations (each of which considered as guides to decision, may mean anything which the tribunals please), que les tribunaux pourraient se décider dans une question si delicate. Under any circumstances there should be positive enactment, and we venture to think it should be against re-self with a simple delineation of the facts of industrial life funding actual profits. At the same time, dividends paid out of capital, and not out of profits, should not merely be refunded, but should be declared to be fraudulent, and should be punishable as such. The punishment should extend to shareholders, because the declaration of a dividend requires their sanction. "Out of the provision which permits a shareholder to lend money to, and thereby become the creditor of the association to which he belongs, a difficulty appears to have arisen. By collusion between the managing partners and shareholders, a part of the contribution of the latter has been disguised under the name of a loan, in order to facilitate its withdrawal in case of failure, to the prejudice He avoids giving opinions of his own. Contenting himin Germany, and expresses a hope that further information respecting foreign countries may be afforded "not only by Englishmen residing abroad, either in an official capacity or otherwise, but also by the numerous and mostly intelligent, yet hitherto rather unproductive, tribe of English tourists." He hopes to see adopted during the coming winter sesbeing a Report on their Intellectual and Technical Training, * Letters on the Condition of the Working Classes of Nassau, their Earnings and Household Economy, and the Institutions Established for their Benefit. Addressed to the Council of the Society of Arts. By T. Twining, Jun. sion, arrangements by which the Council of the Society of Arts may induce many travellers to offer their services to the Society, for acting under instructions which would greatly facilitate inquiry, and secure uniformity of purpose. In each country, those industrial features will of course be most dwelt upon, which are most prominently developed, most different from what we see at home, or most commendable for imitation. "The Duchy of Nassau is not a manufacturing country -the produce of its manufacturing industry is not to be compared to that of its vineyards, or to its mineral wealth -nor does it possess technical institutions like those described by Dr. Playfair in his valuable account of the training colleges of Germany; but its system of elementary education, its regulations concerning the apprentice ship of artisans, and the examinations they have to undergo, and the various means which its remarkably centralised administrative system affords for influencing beneficially the condition of the poorer classes, are well worthy of consideration. On most of these points, and also as regards the mode of living of the working population (proletariat), their wages, expenditure, and resources, it is a very good sample of the south-western part of Germany; and in many respects it will be found to present a very convenient standard of comparison to those who may undertake the review of the neighbouring States." With respect to primary education it appears that "in the Duchy of Nassau, as well as in other parts of Germany, the education of the industrial classes is provided for by a complete system of elementary schools, extending to the smallest village, under the direction of Government. All children from six to fourteen years of age are obliged to attend these schools, unless they frequent some other institution. No child is allowed to remain without instruction. * **The names of children failing to attend are noted down, and their parents subjected by the Burgomaster to a fine, which is increased on recurrence of neglect. the educational system of this country, is the peculiar smoothness with which it slips over an obstacle deemed almost insurmountable in England, viz. the diversity of religious persuasions. With respect to industrial schools it seems "that within the last eight or ten years a notable beginning has been made, under the direction of the Gewerbe-Verein, a Society very similar in its attributes to our Society of Arts," with government assistance to establish " in various parts of the Duchy, what are called Gewerbe-schulen, or Industrial Schools, consisting of "Firstly, Evening Classes ( Abend-schulen) held in winter time, for the purpose of giving young artisans and others an useful complement to their elementary education, in such branches as commercial reckoning and correspondence, and practical geometry. "Secondly, Sunday Classes (Sontag-schulen), intended for departments of study which are not so well taught in the evening as by daylight, and held on Sundays for the⚫ benefit of young men, chiefly apprentices, whose occupations would not allow them to attend conveniently during the week. (a) They comprise the various branches of drawing required for the industrial trades, and geometry applied to the arts of design." There are at present twenty-five of these schools with an aggregate number of about two thousand students. There is also a Modelling School at Wiesbaden, attended at present by between thirty-five and forty students. "7419 florins, or about 6187. sterling, have been expended in the last financial year, for founding and maintaining the above Schools, whereof about two thousand florins were furnished by the Society, and four thousand florins were covered by a Government grant; the remainder was supplied by the localities." The author then proceeds to describe the apprenticeship system, a necessary preliminary to the exercise of any trade. Its term extends from 3 to 4 years; the sum paid to the master varies from 27. 108. to 167. according to the nature of the trade. On passing an examination he The children learn very quickly to read by a kind of is admitted to the rank of journeyman, after which he Phonetic system.-In what is called Anschauung's Un-travels for a time, thus having the opportunity of obterricht, the sense of vision is used in a variety of ways, taining practical experience in his calling and a knowledge for assisting the memory, and facilitating the expansion of of the various methods and contrivances used in different the intellect. localities. "On leaving school at fourteen years of age, the scholar must be able to read German, in German and Roman type, fluently, and with proper emphasis and expression; must be skilled in the rules of common arithmetic; be able to write compositions on subjects of business, with good orthography; and be possessed of some knowledge of geography, natural history, geometry, &c., &c. The charge to the parents for this instruction is from one to four florins (or 1s. 8d. to 68. 8d.) per year, for each child, which amount is paid into the treasury of the parish. The latter provides, under control of Government, for the salary of the master, as well as for school requisites of every kind, and also for the building of the school-houses. Poor communities receive subsidies from the Government treasury. "There are two seminaries, or primary schools, for the education of schoolmasters-one Protestant, at Usingen, which, according to the last reports, contains sixty students; and one Roman Catholic, at Montabauer, with sixty-four students-in which young men from sixteen years of age and upwards receive, at the expense of the Government, a thorough general and special education, including music. At the expiration of three years they have to pass an examination; after which they are appointed school-assistants, with a salary of about 150 florins, or 124. 108. sterling, which, after two years, is somewhat increased. After another year or two, they are installed as schoolmasters (Lehrer), with a salary of 200 florins, or 167. 13s. 47. Their subsequent promotion, and consequent increase of salary, which reaches up to about 700 florins, or near 601., takes place according to seniority. "One of the most interesting features in Before he can become a master, certain important legal and other steps must be taken, but in every case, he is required to accomplish single-handed, for strict inspection by the Prufungs Commission, some model piece of workmanship, sufficient to show, not merely a moderate amount of skill, as when he was a candidate for journeymanship, but his thorough knowledge of the arcana majora of his calling. If he can follow up the display orally, with theoretical evidence, he is entitled to be admitted forthwith to the Honourable Company of the Masters of the Trade. A lad who cannot, or does not pass his apprenticeship examination, becomes at once a day-labourer. Mr. Twining then enters into an elaborate account of the earnings of Tradesmen and master operatives, and the wages of the journeymen day-labourers, and of servants, their terms and condition of labour. The expenses furniture, food, habits, clothing and fuel, are carefully detailed and described, whilst the last letter is devoted to the resources at the command of the population. For the whole of these details the reader must be referred to the work itself. The author has deposited for inspection at the Society of Arts educational samples, to show the proficiency of the children at the Wiesbaden elementary schools, and pamphlets, and printed or manuscript documents, in German, respecting the subjects to which the letters relate, and other collateral topics. Persons desirous of translating any portion of them for publication, are invited to address (a) This plan being open to serious objections, is not to be considered as settled. town of employers,-the strikers being maintained by the general body. This employer or town being obliged to yield, will agree to pay all the wages that can be afforded, and possibly more than can be afforded, for a time. an application to that effect to the Society's Secretary. It should be stated that a certain number of copies of this pamphlet have been placed at the disposal of the Society for distribution, and will be forwarded to persons in any part of the country, connected through their pursuits with the intellectual development of the people, or otherwise taking a special interest in the improvement of the work-another employer or town, and this process may go ing classes, on transmission of a request stating the claim, and accompanied with six stamps to pay the postage. Home Correspondence. STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS. SIR,--The Society of Arts and Manufactures have very fitly placed at the disposal of those interested in the present disputes their rooms and appliances as a neutral ground whereon to discuss the questions at issue on their merits, with a view to their possible adjustment. The parties concerned may, or may not, take advantage of this in verbal discussion, and, if they do not, will waste an opportunity. Meanwhile I will, with your permission, endeavour to discuss the question in your pages. Being neither employer nor employed, I consequently may be supposed to be unprejudiced. I have in my time been an employer of many men in many varieties of work, in more than one country, and am therefore enabled to judge of the qualities, aptitudes, and habits of workmen as well as their defects, and can bear testimony that the latter are mostly a result of want of instruction, and not of wrong purpose. Disagreeing in some things with employers, and in some others with workmen, the chances are that I shall make opponents on both sides. Be that as it may, I shall speak my mind freely, as a public duty, and do not say with the sage of old, Strike, but hear!" but-hear me patiently, and strike afterwards as much as you please. I will, therefore, put on paper as concisely as possible, the statement of the case at issue, and the political economy of the matter, with my views of the possible mode in which the present dispute may be put an end to, and further disputes obviated, with a greater amount of profitable production to the public, to the emplovers, and to the employed. There are three views to be taken of this questionthe legal, the commercial, and the moral. As regards the legal, there can be no doubt that employers have a right to settle amongst themselves individually, or jointly, what wages they may choose to pay for work. And, on the other hand, the employed have a right to determine, individually or jointly, at what rate they choose to sell their labour, provided no control or compulsion be exercised over any individual. This is simply in conformity with the doctrines of political economy-to buy in the cheapest market and sell in the dearest. To put their different views in practice, it is essential that surplus capital should exist as a maintenance fund-to prevent compulsory buying or selling labour, under the pressure of necessity. The strikers may then pursue the same policy with on till the general body of employers, taking the alarm, overcome their competitive feeling with regard to each other, and make common cause, by closing their factories to such an exent as to cut down the issue of wages, and the source of the strike-fund. If the strike were to exist only in cotton manufactures, and all the workmen in other manufactures were to contribute to the strike fund, the contest might be prolonged. But then the employers in other manufactures, dreading the same result in turn, might take up the contest, and it might go on till so large a number had to be supported by the comparatively few workers, that the whole of the workers must break down, with the simultaneous ruin of many employers, and the retardation of English progress-possibly the driving many trades to other countries. Now it is certain that in a national point of view employers and employed have only one interest, and that if, out of the division of the profits of a manufacture, a dispute arise between employers and employed, the profits and the wages-fund will infallibly be lessened. In conducting a manufactory a certain portion of money must build the mills, and buy materials, and on this inte rest must be paid, or the mill would not be built. Another portion must go for profits, or the employers would not carry on business. The remaining portion goes for wages to the employed. The question at issue is, that those employed assume that the employers award too little to the wages share, and too much to the profit share, which is denied by the employers, who say they give all they can afford. It is clear that the employers have the power of knowing what they get. The employed can only surmise, unless the employers show their books, which, like all other merchants, they are disinclined to do, and, unless we suppose the workmen to be good accountants, it does not follow that they would be satisfied that the accounts were genuine. But the employers say that they find the capital, and the risk, and that they do not choose to admit the workmen to a knowledge of, or conference with, their con cerns. The result is a kind of war against each other's finances, destroying national capital, and giving the victory-not necessarily to the right, but to the most powerful. And the victory is not a peace. The employed go to work again, but with a resolution to try again at the first opportunity, believing that they have been beaten-not by natural laws, but by unfair tactics. Nor can this condition of things be altered. The employed must do the bidding of the employers, implicitly, so long as they are paid by daily or piece wages-the latter being in reality only daily wages-calculated so as to vary the rates between first-class and inferior workmen. The employers possess this maintenance fund or capital-individually. The employed rarely possess it individually, and, therefore, the advantage in the mutual labour market must rest with the employer. Still the employed have a perception that this is not to To meet this difficulty, the workmen unite and sub-be their final condition, but that they must arrive at some scribe to form a joint-stock fund, wherewith to maintain process whereby their earnings may rise in graduated themselves while resisting the lowering their wages, or scale with prosperous times without depending on the while aiming at raising them. absolute will or mere conscience of the employer. have occasionally talked of claiming a share of profits in addition to wages. But, it is clear that this maintenance can only apply to a very small number out of work, while the great majority continue in work. If, therefore, the whole body of workmen were to strike at once, there would be no maintenance fund whatever on the part of the workmen. To meet this case, the majority continue in work, and commence a strike against an individual employer, or a They This the employer thinks most unjust, as they run no risk, in addition to the utter impracticability of any such arrangement under the present law of partnership. And in this the employer is right. The employed must save their wages and acquire a capital to risk before they can be entitled to contingent profits as well as to |