Examples: Shall you see him again?' Answer: 'I think I shall.' you help me tomorrow?' Answer: 'I will.'

'Will

(b) Will should not be used with the first person in asking questions as to what the speaker is to do; thus, 'Will I tell him?' should be 'Shall I tell him? ' (c) Will is used to report the will, or determination, of the third person; as, "He will have his own way about it in spite of everything."

200. Should, Would.-These two words are derived from shall and will, of which they are the past forms. They are, however, much used in a present or future sense to express action or existence depending upon some condition; as—

I should go if I were able. He would come if you should invite him.

(a) In general, the difference between should and would is much the same as that between shall and will. Would implies an exercise of the will; should a dependent action or an obligation. In expressing a conditional_action or obligation, should may be used with either of the persons.

Remark. In the latter sense, should means the same as ought, though not so strong a word; as, "He should (ought to) go."

Would is sometimes used in the past to denote a habit or custom; as, would walk the floor for hours at a time."

"He

Would is also used in the present to express willingness conditioned upon the ability to do; as, "He would if he could."

In asking questions, use would or should according to 199 a, and b.

In reporting what others have said we should use the auxiliaries they used Examples: 'He says he shall be glad to see you;' or, 'He said he should be glad to see you.' 'The man says he will not pay the bill;' or, 'The man said he would not pay the bill.'

[For further discussion of shall and will, should and would, see 366. ]

201. May, Might.—May indicates present permission in regard to an action or possession; as

You may go. He may have it.

(a) May also implies a possible present possession or future action; thus"He may come may mean either 'He is at liberty to come,' or, 'It is possible that he may (will) yet come.'

And so, "He may have it," may mean either 'He is granted permission to have it,' or, 'It is possible that he (now) has it.'

(b) May also expresses a possible present existence or the possibility of a present perfect action or past existence; as, "He may be sick." "He may have gone by this time.” "He may have been sick." That is, 'It is possible that he is sick,'' has gone,' 'was sick.'

(c) Might, the past of may, is used to express past permission or power to do or be, or the possibility of doing, being, or having; as, "He said you might go;" that is, 'He gave you permission to go." "You might have helped us ; that is, 'You could (or 'had the power to ') have helped us.'

(d) Might is also used in a conditional sense to express either permission or power to do, or the possibility of doing, in the present or future; as, "You might stay if the weather were not so bad." "He might decide in our favor if they would let him alone." "They might help us if they would.”

202. Can, Could.-As may implies permission, so can and its past, could, imply ability or power.

(a) Can is used only in the present time. Could is used in past and past perfect verb-phrases. In the past perfect it is used in a conditional sense; as— He could have helped us if he had been here.

(b) Could is also used in a present sense to denote ability conditioned upon a willingness to do; as, 'He could if he would.'

203. Must, Ought.-These two words imply obligation.

Must bears the idea of an obligation (a 'being obliged') from necessity or other compulsion. Though it has no past form, must is used as an auxiliary to present perfect verb-phrases; as

"You must have known it," meaning, 'It must be that you knew it,' or, 'It certainly is true that you knew it.'

(a) Ought originally meant owe, of which word it was the past form. Hence, ought means 'owe;' 'to be indebted to;' 'to be under obligation to.' It conveys the idea of a moral obligation, or, as we may say, an obligation 'from the very nature of things.'

Remark.-Should, in one of its senses, is a synonym for ought, though 'ought' denotes the stronger obligation. [See 200 a, Remark.]

Examples: We should help one another. You ought to help him.

(b) Though classed with the auxiliary verbs, ought is, as mentioned above (198 b), really a principal verb, always followed by the root infinite of some other verb. (371.) It is used in both present and past senses; thus

"They ought to notify us;" that is, 'They owe it to us to give us notice.' "They ought to have notified us;" that is, 'They owed it to us to give us notice.'

204. Without including shall and will (used to denote future time, and, when necessary, to express a promise or determination on the part of the speaker), and have (used to express possession, and also to denote completed time), we have the following meanings, or ideas, expressed by the auxiliaries:

POTENTIAL. ('power') can, could, might.
LIBERTY. ('permission') may and might.
POSSIBILITY. May and might.

OBLIGATION. Must, ought, and should.
NECESSITY. Must.

CONDITIONAL. Would or any other auxiliary followed by if or unless introducing a condition.

(a) When verb-phrases are introduced by the auxiliaries may, can, might, could, expressing the idea of power, permission, or possibility, the manner ("mode") of assertion is called the "potential."

(b) When the auxiliaries must and ought, and should in one of its senses, are used, the manner of assertion is " obligative," expressing obligation or necessity.

(c) When the auxiliaries are used in a conditional sense, the manner of making the statement is said to be "conditional" or "dependent."

205. Emphatic Verb-Phrases.-The use of do (past did) as an auxiliary is to form what are called emphatic verb-phrases in the present and past times; as, "I do write letters." "I did write the letters."

Remark. But do in these sentences is really a principal verb, followed by the infinitive of another verb as its object (1923 and 371). Thus

"I did write the letters" means 'I performed the act of writing the letters.'

LESSON 29.

INDEPENDENT, INTRODUCTORY, AND EXPLANATORY WORDS. In previous lessons on analysis, we have studied the elements of which simple, compound, and complex sentences are composed. We have now to notice certain words and expressions that are used in sentences, or along with them, to aid us in the expression of thoughts.

206. Independent Words.-Aside from interjections and interjectional phrases, and the responsives, yes and no, there is another way in which words are used independently, that is, without depending upon the sentence with which they are used, or rather, without having the sentence depend upon them.

(a) A word may be independent by direct address; as—

Gentlemen,—Your order of yesterday has been filled.

Mr. President,—I move that a committee be appointed, etc.

(b) The most common use of words independent by direct address occurs with imperative sentences (57); as—

Children, [you] obey your parents. Charles, [you] shut the door.

(c) A'modal' word or phrase (104f, Remark) is often made independent by being used parenthetically; thus

We will not, however, concede so much.

Note. In analysis, the independent words are not considered as elements of the sentence with which they are used. If mentioned at all it is sufficient to say that they are independent words, and to tell whether they are independent by exclamation (interjectional), by direct address, or by parenthetical use.

207. Introductory Words.—Under this head may be classed—

(a) So, well, why, and that, used to introduce sentences. (108 b.) Remark. The introductory that is often omitted; as, "I told him [that] you wished to see him." "Had you heard [that] they were coming?"

(b) The indefinites it and there used as subjects. (108 a, 212 a.)

(c) Conjunctions used to begin sentences and connect them in thought with what goes before. (116.)

(d) Modal adverbs (104), such as indeed, surely, certainly, however, when used to introduce sentences. [See Rule 1 for the comma, 302, Note 1.]

Remark.-When these 'modal' words, and phrases of a similar nature, are used parenthetically, they may be regarded as independent. (206 c.) [See 302, Note 3.]

In analysis, words in class (a) are not to be considered as elements, they are merely introductory; those in (b) are indefinite subjects. The introductory conjunctions (c) should be parsed as such while the other words under (d) are to be considered as introductory (or 'modal') adverbs modifying the entire sentence rather than any particular word in it.

208. Explanatory Words.-It frequently occurs that a noun or pronoun is added to another noun or pronoun by way of explanation; thus—

His brother William is attending college.

We, the undersigned, subscribe as follows.

The noun 'William' is added to brother to explain or show which brother is meant; and 'the undersigned' is used to explain who we means.

And so in

Milton, the poet, was blind when he wrote his greatest poem, Paradise Lost, 'the poet' is added to explain who Milton was, and 'Paradise Lost' is added to 'poem' to show which poem is meant. Words added to other words in this way are called "explanatory modifiers," or (more commonly) they are said to be "in apposition" with the noun they explain. (Apposition means 'in position near,' or 'by the side of.')

209. Pronouns are placed in apposition with either nouns or pronouns. When they are so used, they should have the subject or object form according as the noun or pronoun which they explain is a subject or an object. (237. ) The most frequent appositional use of pronouns is that of compound pronouns used by way of repetition for the purpose of emphasis; thus—

Charles himself sees the mistake. I myself saw it. She did it herself. Note. The 'explanatory modifier' (word in apposition) may itself be modified or limited by a word, a phrase, or a clause.

210. Sentences containing explanatory modifiers, to be analyzed:

[For the punctuation of such sentences, see Rule 1 for comma, 302, Note 4.]

1. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, was a man of genius. 2. Garfield, the soldier, became Garfield the President. 3. You Englishmen are more conservative than we Americans. 4. Fulton, the man who invented the steamboat, was born in Pennsylvania. 5. He was guilty of treason, a crime punishable with death. 6. We, the people of the United States, do hereby ordain and establish this constitution.

(a) Sometimes a second explanatory word is placed in apposition with the first one; thus

'We, the undersigned, citizens of the State of Ohio, do humbly petition,' etc.; 'I, James Brown, Justice of the Peace in and for the town of Monroe,' etc.

211. On account of historic importance and long association, the noun in apposition in some cases comes to be regarded as a part of the name, and the two, together with the connecting word (usually the), may be parsed as one word (657); thus