from the noun 'truth,' and by the addition of another suffix we change it from an adjective back to a noun,-truthfulness. The noun 'runaway' is composed of the verb run and the adverb away; the adverb 'away' is composed of the adjective a and the noun way.

Adding prefixes and suffixes to words to form derivatives, or putting words together to form compound words is called composition, or word-making. Many of our words in common use were obtained in this way and it will be interesting to notice how different parts of speech have thus been made.

64.

Nouns.-DERIVATIVE NOUNS are formed

I. By suffixes to adjectives, themselves either simple or derivative; as, sickness, happiness, eagerness, sadness, security, reality.

2. By suffixes to simple nouns; as, heroism, skepticism, Americanism, agriculturist, geologist, conversationist.

Note. In this way, a few nouns are formed to denote female sex; as heroine, countess. In the same manner we form nouns denoting small things; as, seedling, duckling, gosling, booklet, leaflet.

3. By prefixes to other nouns; as, disadvantage, inability, nonsense, uncertainty, ex-governor.

4. By suffixes to verbs; as, writer, swimmer, flattery, impeachment.

Note. From verbs are derived (by the addition of the suffix ing) a class of words used as the names of actions; as, singing, dancing, writing, printing. As will be seen hereafter, these words are not always pure nouns, being sometimes nouns with verbal natures. (164.)

Furnish nouns belonging to each of the above-mentioned classes. 65. COMPOUND NOUNS are made

1. By putting together two or more simple or derivative nouns; as, crow-bar, postman, sidewalk, cash-boy, hand-organ, foot-ball.

2. By prefixing an adjective to a noun which it describes; as, bluebell, whiteface, midnight, mainsail, red-man.

3. By suffixing a noun to a verb; as, driveway, feed-box, pickpocket.

4. By suffixing the adjective full (dropping the last 7) to nouns; as. handful, spoonful, basketful. (360 d.)

5. By prefixing a preposition to a noun or verb; as, outskirts, output, income, forethought, forerunner, overcomer.

6. By prefixing a noun or a participle to a noun, the latter being described by the former; as, seashore, housetop, sewing-machine, carving-knife.

7. Phrases consisting of two or more nouns used as the name of a single person or thing are considered as one word. Examples: Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, Harriet Beecher Stowe. Sometimes three or more words of

various parts of speech are united and used as one noun; thus, father-in-law, Stratford-on-Avon, Mary Queen of Scots, Alexander the Great. (211.)

Furnish compound nouns belonging to each of these classes. [For instruction in the use of the hyphen in compound words, see 319.] 66. Pronouns.-In this part-of-speech, we have only simple and compound words-no derivatives.

(a) SIMPLE PRONOUNS are I, we, you, he, she, it, and they, and none, aught, naught, some, any, one, all, and each. The first seven of these are called personal pronouns (80); the others are called indefinites (83).

(b) It is true that there are other forms of these simple personal pronouns, such as me, us, his, him, her, them, etc.; but while these forms are, in part (some of them are not), made from the simple forms given above, the change in form is for another purpose, and not to compose new words. (141 and 143.)

67. COMPOUND PRONCUNS are made

I. By combining the personal pronouns with the noun self (or selves); thus, myself, himself, herself, yourself, themselves, and ourselves.

2. By prefixing the indefinite adjectives some, any, every, and no, to one, thing, and body; as, someone, something, somebody, anyone, anything. (144 6.) 3. Phrases.-There are two pronoun phrases; each other and one another. Write all the compound pronouns you can make with the words given above.

68. Adjectives.-DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES are formed—

1. By suffixes to nouns, as follows: handy, manly, useful, bridal, boyish, nervous, careless, heroic, reasonable, delightsome, earthen, forked, parental, commercial.

2. By suffixes to verbs; as, movable, desirable, active, talkative, written, broken, defeated, bowed, sparkling, singing.

Note. The last six belong to a class of words that are not regarded as pure adjectives except when they are placed immediately before the noun they qualify. (876 and 170.)

3. By suffixes to other adjectives; as, later, latest, warmer, warmest, greenish, cleanly, gladsome.

Note. The first four of these words are, in fact, formed for the purpose of comparison, and not to make new words. (145-6.)

4. By prefixes to other adjectives; as, unhandy, immovable, impure. Furnish adjectives belonging to the above-mentioned classes.

69. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES are made by putting together two or more words of different parts of speech, as follows:

I. A noun and an adjective, as, sea-sick, foot-sore, knee-deep, sky-blue.

2.

A noun and a verb; as, moss-covered, snow-capped, star-spangled.

3. An adjective and a noun, the latter having ed as an adjective suffix; as, hard-hearted, high-toned, light-fingered, old-fashioned.

4. An adjective and a verb; as, new-born, well-fed, slow-going.

5. An adverb and a verb or an adjective; as, everlasting, never-ending, overanxious, full-grown, full-blown.

6. Phrases consisting of three or more words are sometimes used as a single adjective; thus, a happy-go-lucky fellow, a go-as-you-please style.

The article a (from an ) is used with many, such, what, quite, and few, to form adjective-phrases, thus, many a, such a, what a, quite a, and a few. It is also used before 'great many;' as, A great many people were there.

Furnish adjectives belonging to each of these classes.

70. Verbs.-DERIVATIVE VERBS are formed as follows:

1. By prefixes: (a) To other verbs; as, unwrap, bemoan, disown, rewrite, enclose. (b) To nouns, as, embalm, enthrone, enjoy, disorder, behead. (c) To adjectives; as, belate, renew, refresh.

2. By suffixes: (a) To adjectives; as, purify, nullify, lighten, soften. (b) To nouns; as, frighten, terrorize, journalize, memorize.

3. By both prefixes and suffixes; as, dishearten, enlighten, unfasten.

4. By changes in the ending of nouns and adjectives; as, qualify, electrify, beautify, horrify.

Note.-Some verbs are derived from others by change of form, as, sang from sing, wrote from write, came from come, talked from talk, beaten from beat. But as this change in the form of the verb is not for the purpose of making a new word, it does not really belong to composition. (1621.)

71. COMPOUND VERBS are made

I. By prefixing a preposition to a verb, the preposition having an adverbial sense; as, oversee, uplift, withdraw, outshine, foretell.

2. By prefixing a noun to a verb; as, browbeat, water-soak, case-harden.

Note 1.-Many nouns are used as verbs, the verbal use signifying what is done by or with the thing named when the word is a noun; as, to pen a letter, to hand a book, to express a package, to mail a letter, to people a country, to tree a coon, to roof a house, to snowball a person, to copyright an article.

Note 2.-Phrases consisting of two or more verbs are not compound verbs, though they are usually parsed as one word. (10.)

Furnish verbs belonging to each of the above-mentioned classes. 72. Adverbs.-DERIVATIVE ADVERBS are formed in the following ways:

1. By suffixes to adjectives, chiefly the suffix ly; as, dearly, fully, rarely, honestly.

2. By changing the adjective suffix, ble to bly; as, ably, nobly, feebly; ic is changed to ical before adding ly; as, heroically, frantically.

3. By the suffix ward, added to nouns and prepositions; thus, skyward, homeward, forward, toward, upward. (See 2781.)

4. By adding to adjectives or nouns : (a) The prefix a (from on); as, anew, afresh, ahead, afoot, a-fishing. (b) The prefix je (from by); as, beside, beyond.

Furnish adverbs belonging to the above-mentioned classes.

73. COMPOUND ADVERBS are made by union of two or more parts of speech, the more common being

I.

An adjective and a noun; as, always, sometime, otherwise.

2. An adjective and an adjective; as, almost, already.

3.

An adverb and an adverb; as, henceforward, henceforth.

4. An adverb and a preposition; as, herewith, nerein, wherefore.

5. A preposition and an adverb; as, forever, perhaps.

6. A preposition and a noun; as, overhead, underside, outside.

7.

Phrases, consisting of a preposition followed by an adjective, serve the purpose of single adverbs; as, in vain, of late, at last, for good.

Furnish adverbs belonging to the above-mentioned classes.

74. Prepositions.-DERIVATIVE PREPOSITIONS are formedI. From verbs; as, during, concerning, excepting, respecting.

2. By prefixing a to other parts of speech, chiefly nouns and adjectives; as, along, around, aslant, aboard.

Remark.-Strictly speaking, these are compound prepositions, as the prefix a is from the preposition on.

75. COMPOUND PREPOSITIONS are made

1. By uniting two prepositions; as, into, upon, within, throughout.

2. By uniting a preposition and some other part-of-speech, usually a noun or an adjective; as, beside, below, between.

3. Phrases, consisting of two or more prepositions, are often used with the value of a single preposition. Examples: From over, from under, because of. Furnish prepositions and preposition-phrases, as above.

76. Conjunctions.—As regards composition, conjunctions are not easily classified. They are much like the derivative and compound adverbs, many of which are used conjunctively [See I10 a and Note; also 113.]

(a) Phrases, consisting of two or more words, are used as conjunctions with an adverbial sense. They are such as, except that, in order that, inasmuch as.

LESSON 12.

KINDS OF NOUNS.

77. In previous lessons, we have been analyzing sentences and classifying words according to what they do. We have found that there are eight classes of words, as follows:

1. Nouns.-Words that name things. (4 a.)

2.

Pronouns.-Words that mention things without naming them. (II.) 3. Adjectives.-Words that limit or qualify nouns and pronouns. (15.) 4. Verbs.-Words that assert existence, action, or possession. (4 6, 332.) 5. Adverbs.-Words that modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (20.) 6. Prepositions.-Words placed before nouns and pronouns to form adjectival and adverbial phrases. (26-7.)

7. Conjunctions.-Words that join words, phrases, and sentences. (29.) 8. Independent words, consisting of interjections and a few words used merely to introduce sentences. (31, Note.)