USAGE NOT THE FINAL LAW AS TO CORRECTNESS. It should be noticed that Errors 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 14, 15, and 16, pages 117-19, are questions of logical relations rather than of “grammar." So, also, are most of the "popular absurdities," pages 128-31. Indeed, nearly all the errors in English syntax may be resolved into questions concerning the logical sequence of words, their relations according to sense; and this law of logical relations in the sentence is the final law as to what is correct. Some, however, defend such expressions as had rather, and is being done, on the ground that they are idiomatic and have the support of good usage. It is true that idioms, being, in the main, metaphorical, defy all attempts at classification according to the technical terms and definitions of “grammar; but an idiom should not be illogical, and those idioms that are not logical will sooner or later be discarded as erroneous, just as in the case of "whether or no." [See 379.] As to usage: No amount of good usage, however eminent the users may be, can make a wrong-an illogical-thing right; nor will calling an illogical expression an "idiom" save it from the fate it deserves, though it may require a long time to bring people to see that it is wrong. The idea that usage decides all questions as to correctness of speech is an erroneous one, and one that has done much harm. There is scarcely an error in English syntax (even the gross errors which grammarians and others have pointed out and sought to correct in their chapters on "false syntax,") but may be justified and defended on the ground of "good usage." The first concern of the great speaker or the great writer is not about words, which are but the vehicles of thought, but with great thoughts and themes. Often these thoughts come as an inspiration to such a person and his business is to give them to the world. In his impassioned utterances, the speaker's tongue may not always be accurate, and it is often the case that he has not an opportunity to recast his sentences before they appear in print. With the writer, it is different. He is supposed to use greater care in his choice of words and forms of expression; but much of our best English literature has come from pens that have been impelled by impassioned or inspired minds. And so pens have slipped, as well as tongues. Again, many errors in our great masterpieces of literature have been the result of imperfect, or incorrect translation, while still others, no doubt, have crept in through the carelessness of printers. Of course, when the common people find certain words and forms of expression in what is regarded as good literature, or hear them from the lips of good public speakers, they (the people) are excusable for supposing them to be correct and, hence, for using them. But if such words and expressions are incorrect-illogical-it is the duty of teachers of our language to point out the fact and do what they can to help preserve the purity, simplicity, and logical force of our noble English tongue. THE ENGLISH A GRAMMARLESS LANGUAGE. "If then Grammar be merely declension and conjugation, which is not far from the truth, it plays comparatively a very insignificant part in English. All the irregularities of our language are more than compensated by the extreme paucity [small number] of its grammatical forms. It is almost as grammarless as Chinese, in which no written word is ever varied by a single stroke or dot, and when spoken admits of only a change of tone. The weary hours and years spent by our youth in parsing English sentences according to forms borrowed from Greek and Latin are worse than wasted-useless for the avowed purpose of learning to speak and write, and leading to a misapprehension of what our language is. Grammar then treats of everything relating to a language that can be reduced to general facts, principles, or rules. It has to deal chiefly with the various forms assumed by the same words. This is, in English, a very narrow field, but extremely rocky.”—Samuel Ramsey. Sir Philip Sidney, in his "Apology for Poetry," published in 1595, said: "I know some will say it is a mingled language. And why not so much the better, taking the best of both the other? Another will say that it wanteth [lacks] grammer. Nay, truly, it hath that praise that it wanteth not [ does not need ] grammer; for grammer it might have, but it needes it not; being so easie of itselfe, and so voyd of those cumbersome differences of cases, genders, moodes, and tenses, which I think was a peece of the Tower of Babilon's curse that a man should be put schoole to learne his mother tongue. But for the uttering sweetly and properly the conceits of the minde, which is the end of speech, that hath it equally with any other tongue in the world; and is particularly happy in compositions of two or three words together, neere the Greeke, far beyond the Latine, which is one of the greatest beauties can be in a language." "The reason why English has no grammar is that it is ancumbered with cases, genders, moods, and tenses, and, we may almost say, with grammatical person. For these are the essence of grammar, or rather, I should say, its conditions; without them there can be no grammar. Grammar has to do with the correct form and correlation of words. But in English there is no form, and consequently no correlation dependent upon form that has any noteworthy influence upon the construction of the sentence. Let candid objectors wait a little before they spring up to reply. I said 'noteworthy influence' meaning by this phrase to allow for certain small remnants of grammar which are to be found in the English language. For English had once a grammar. When the Englishspeaking people were rude, ignorant, savage, and heathen, without literature, without any semblance of fine art, knowing little even of the useful arts, living in hovels, tilling the ground in the rudest manner, having a money price for man's life, their language had a grammar, which surpassed in complexity that of the Romans, and almost equal to that of the Greeks. But as they became civilized they rid themselves of this complexity; and when they had reached the point at which they were about to produce a Bacon and a Shakespeare, they had, to all intents and purposes, freed themselves from it entirely."— White. INDEX. Numbers refer to paragraphs. For general subjects, see Table of Contents. Absolute constructions, 214. Adjectives, 15; predicate adjectives, 16; Adjectival phrases, 27a; clauses, 118. Can and could, 202. Clauses, 111a; adverbial, 117; adjec- Elements, 34; principal, 35; subordi- "Gender," 361. Had rather, etc., 380. Have, use in verb-phrases, 180, 367 a. Is being built, etc., 386. It and there, indef. subjects, 108, 212. Must and ought, 203. Nouns, 4a, 5; predicate nouns, 17; nouns, 140; of adjectives, 150; of verbs, 152. Participles, 165; how to distinguish Possessive form of nouns, 135; in apposition, 363; of pronouns, 141-2; joint Prepositions, 26; deriv. and comp., 74-5; Pronoun-phrases, 673. Sentences, 2, 52; simple and comp., 50; kinds of, 55-8; complex, 124. Subject and predicate, 3, 53; bare and "Tense," 161, Note; 367. That, 85f; "clause article," 358. Time-form of verbs, 160; but two To, "sign" of infinitive, 190–2, 370. Were used in the present, 188–9. Who, which and that, uses of, 85, 347. PRINCIPAL AUTHORS CONSULTED. ABBOTT, REV. E. A.1-How to Write Clearly, 1876. How to tell the Parts of GOULD, REV. EDW. S.-Good English, 1880.--A. C. Armstrong & Son, N. Y. S. C. Griggs & Co., Chicago. RAMSEY, SAMUEL-The English Language and English Grammar, 1892. WHITNEY, W. D. 3—Essentials of English Grammar, 1880. WHITNEY & LOCKWOOD-English Grammar, 1892.—Ginn & Company, Boston. I. Head Master of the City of London School. 2. Principal State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Michigan. 3. Professor of Languages in Yale University; Editor-in-chief of the Century Dictionary. DESIGNED FOR USE IN SCHOOLS, FOR HOME STUDY, AND FOR REFERENCE. Practical Spelling, 120 pages, 52x 8 inches; 190 lessons of 20 words each, and 40 Dictation Exercises; full cloth. Price, 35 cents. Letter Writing, contains illustrated instruction for writing all kinds of letters. It is the best book published on this subject; 144 pages, 52x8; full cloth. Price, 75 cents. Spelling and Letter Writing. This book contains all that is in the two books above described. 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