case. Hence, though it is proper enough, because convenient, to call the interjection a part-of-speech, they are not in the same sense as the others. Each interjection is, in a certain way, an undivided sentence, put in the language of feeling rather than in that of reason."—Essentials of English Grammar, p. 19.

341. (37.)—We have made use of the terms "bare subject" and "bare predicate" in preference to the usual "simple subject," etc., for the reason that we think it better to restrict the term simple in its syntax use to distinguish the simple sentence from complex and compound sentence. Professor Whitney is the only author, so far as we have noticed, that has employed the terms "bare" and "simple" in this distinctive way. He applies the term "bare" also to simple sentences consisting of only a subject and a predicate.

342. Predicate Adjective (166);-otherwise, "attribute complement." (a) "Attribute complement " is proper enough when applied to predicate adjectives (attribute meaning 'a quality' or 'characteristic'), but by some it has been loosely employed to mean not only adjectives but nouns, pronouns, phrases (including infinitives) and clauses, used to complete the predicate after copula verbs. We believe it is better to use the more significant terms found in paragraphs 16 b, 17, 41 a, and 120.

343. (42-3.)—Since the verb is always limited by its object, it is also called the "object complement;" hence, the complete predicate includes the object with all its modifiers. In this work, however, we have restricted the term complement" to the infinitive adjuncts of subjects and objects. [See 222 and 223.]

344. Enough (52 c), when an adverb, always follows the verb it modifies; as, "It is not deep enough." "They did not work hard enough.”

345. Personal Pronouns (80).—“As an explanation of our distinction between the First, Second, and Third Persons, it may be remembered that the Romans, whose grammar we have copied, thought it natural for the person speaking to think first of himself (I); second, of the person to whom he was speaking (you), and third, of any one else about whom he was speaking (him or her).-How to Parse, p. 61.

346. (81 a.)-It (from “hit,” the Anglo-Saxon neuter of he) is not, strictly speaking, a personal pronoun, though often used in referring to young children. For the origin of it and its, see "Words and Their Uses," pp. 241-44.

347. Relative Pronouns (82).—We have not included what in this list, though such a classification of the word has long been followed by grammarians. The parsing of what as a "double relative," equivalent to that which or the thing which, may possess an interest for those who delight in technicalities, but there is nothing but confusion in it for the average student. Besides, it is a useless distinction, almost an absurdity, to consider what any more a rela

tive in "I don't know what he wanted," than which is in "I don't know which he wanted;" for there is no antecedent for either word. True, which is selective, what, general; but in these sentences both are indefinite, and there is no more need of resolving what into that which or the thing which, in order to parse it, than there is in resolving which into the thing which. Nor is the what any more a relative in "We have not heard what caused the trouble," than which is in "We have not heard which caused it," or who in "We have not heard who caused it."

(a) "The conjunction as is sometimes used, especially after such with the value of a relative pronoun; thus, 'I love such as love me;' such as meaning here the same as those whɔ.”—Essentials of English Grammar, p. 78.

(b) Who, Which, and That." Who and whose refer to persons and things personified; which, to infants, irrational animals, and to persons when the specification is indefinite or interrogative; and that is used in the place of both which and who. Which is general; that is restrictive; hence a relative clause that conveys an additional and general idea requires which instead of that; for illustration, see the use of "that" in the last sentence.-Townsend's “Art of Speech," p. 111.

(c) Dr. Abbott, in "How to Write Clearly," gives the following rule for using who, which, and that:

"who" and 66 When using the Relative Pronoun, use which where the meaning is "and he, it, &c.," or "for he, it, &c." In other cases use "that," if euphony allows.

"I heard this from the inspector, who (and he) heard it from the guard that travelled with the train."

"Fetch me (all) the books that lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, which (and these) you will find on the floor."

An adherence to this rule would remove much ambiguity. Thus:

"There was a public-house next door, which was a great nuisance," means “and this (i. e. the fact of its being next door) was a great nuisance;" whereas, that would have meant “Next door was a public house that (i. e. the public house) was a great nuisance."

“Who,” “which,” etc., introduce a new fact about the anteced. ent, whereas "that" introduces something without which the antecedent is incomplete or undefined.

Thus, in the first example above, "inspector" is complete in itself, and "who" introduces a new fact about him; "guard" is incomplete, and requires "that traveled with the train" to complete the meaning.

It is not, and cannot be maintained, that this rule, though observed in Elizabethan English, is observed by our best modern authors. (Probably a general impression that "that" cannot be referred to persons has assisted "who" in supplanting "that" as a relative.) But the con. venience of the rule is so great that beginners in composition may, with advantage, adhere to it.

348. Who (42, 48).—The objective form of the interrogative who is becoming obsolete. It is now confined almost wholly to the position immediately following a preposition. Thus we ask: "For whom did you inquire?" but "Who did you inquire for?" "To whom did you apply?" but "Who did you apply to?" "Who did you see?"

(a) In an article in The Chautauquan (Feb., 1885), Mr. Richard Grant White said: "All the little specks of grammar that the English has are mostly to be found in the pronouns. In the use of one of these a change is very gradually taking place. Whom has begun to disappear, began indeed a long time ago; but of late is fading somewhat more perceptibly. For example: All speakers of good English say, The man whom I saw, not The man who I saw; whom being the objective form of who. But now-a-days not one person in a hundred of the best bred and best educated speakers of the English language asks, Whom did you see? but Who did you see? Indeed, the latter form of the question may be regarded as accepted English. Yet in the latter phrase as in the former, the pronoun is the object of the verb see, and should strictly have the objective form. But Whom did you see? would now sound very formal and precise, almost priggish. When, however, the pronoun is brought in direct contact with the verb, as in the phrase, 'The man whom I saw,' we shrink from insult to the little semblance of grammar that our English possesses and give the word its objective form. The time will probably come, although it may be remote, when whom will altogether have disappeared."

(b) Whose is the possessive form of the pronoun who, and also of the adjective which. It is used: 1. As an adjective-relative (82 a, example 2); . As an interrogative indefinite (83 b); 3. As an ordinary indefinite pronoun (83 c); 4. As an interrogative adjective (91); 5. As an ordinary indefinite adjective (92 a).

349. Articles.-The word article means a "little joint or limb."-Dr. Abbott. Hence, the term is not inappropriately applied to an (a) and the, which are so closely connected with their nouns that they seem to be a part (a'limb') of the noun.

(a) "The the which we often use before a comparative (adjective or adverb), in such phrases as—

The more the merrier, The more he looked at her the less he liked her,

is not an article at all, but an adverb.

Again, in phrases like

Two miles an hour, Three shillings a yard,

the an or a is not precisely the article, but a weakened form of one in another sense, that of each one,' 'each,' 'every.'

He is gone a hunting, They set it a going,

Once more, inand the like (which are often, and better, written a-hunting, a-going), the a has nothing to do with either the article or the numeral, but is a remnant of an old preposition, generally on.”—Professor Whitney.-" Essentials," p. 95.

(b) The use of an before "historic" and other words beginning with the pronounced h and accented on the second syllable, though still observed by some writers and speakers, is becoming obsolete.

350. Pronominal Adjectives (93).- Grammarians differ as to the

words included in this class. Professor Whitney includes all the possessive forms given in 81 a, while Dr. Abbott and others include only those given in 141, regarding those given in 142 as possessive pronouns.

351. Words "understood" (94). The noun should not be said to be "understood," unless it can be supplied from the same sentence. To say that the noun is "understood" after each and neither in "Each was positive but neither was right," is guess-work, since we cannot know positively what the noun is without going outside the sentence. Each word should be judged (classified) according to what it does in its own sentence.

352. Copula Verbs.-The copula be is generally regarded as the base, or root, of all the pure copulas (100 b, Note); but philological research has proved that they come to us from three different roots.

(a) Concerning the verbs seem, appear, etc., in their copulative use, it may be observed that the emphatic do or did may be placed before them, which is not true of the pure copulas. When used copulatively, as seem always is, these words admit the copula to be after them without affecting the meaning. This is also true of the passive verb-phrases made from such transitive verbs as choose, elect, appoint, name; as, was chosen, was elected, has been appointed.

(b) “Adverbial Predicate.-In some sentences, and especially with the verbs of condition and motion, the predicate adjective seems to modify both the subject and the verb. For example, in the sentence, 'The sun shines bright,' we mean not merely that the sun is bright, but also that the shining is bright. Such an adjective may be called an Adverbial Predicate Adjective, because it seems to have something of the force of an adverb. Other examples are, 'He stands firm;' 'The milk has turned sour;' 'The tone rings clear and full ;' 'They sat mute.""—Whitney & Lockwood's Grammar, p. 99.

(c) Verbs of Identity.—"The Intransitive Verbs 'is,' 'looks,'' seems,' ' appears,' and the Transitive Verbs 'make,' 'create,' appoint,'' deem,'' esteem,' being often used to express identity, may be called 'Verbs of Identity.'"-How to Parse, p. 105.

(d) Copulative Verbs.-To those mentioned in the Note under 100 b, may be added grow, get (in the sense of 'become '), turn, stand, remain, continue, and sound. These verbs have a two-fold office in sentences, asserting condition (or state of being) in some and action in others. It is principally on account of this double use of these copulative verbs that persons so frequently err by using adverbs instead of adjectives after them. Upon this point Prof. Sill makes the following comment: [Practical Lessons, p. 123.] "Much bad English is due to ignorance of the two meanings and uses of these words. It is noticeable that those untaught in grammar usually say, for instance, 'The city looks gay,' as they ought, while those who attempt some precision of speech will blunder by saying, 'The city looks gaily,' which means nothing at all." Surely here, as in other matters, "a little learning is a dangerous thing."

353. Passive Verb-phrase (101).-Notice that the passive form of the predicate is not made by a change in the word "kicked" but by putting another word before it to form a phrase. That is, a verb does not, in itself, show "passivity," as the grammarians say.

354. Adverbs (103).-There are cases in which an adverb modifies a preposition. As examples of such, Professor,Whitney gives

"A result far beyond his hopes," "He jumped clear over the wall,” and Reed and Kellogg ["Higher Lessons in English,” p. 43] give— "The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below the Falls." (a) In a like manner, the adverb just may modify a conjunction in such sentences as, "He came just as I was leaving," "It happened just before we arrived.” (b) “The adverbs that qualify other adverbs are almost only those of degree; as, very, too, more, most. The same are used most freely with adjectives. But as adjectives shade off into participles, implying something of condition or action, they take more or less freely the whole series of qualifying adverbs which the verb takes."-Professor Whitney.-" Essentials," p. 136.

355. "The words 'yes' and 'no,' which are used in replying or responding to a question, and are therefore called responsives, were originally adverbs, but are so no longer because they never combine with other words as modifying or limiting them, but are in themselves complete answers. Thus, in answer to the question, 'Will you go?' yes and no means respectively, 'I will go,' or 'I will not go.' The responsives stand thus for a whole sentence, and hence are not properly parts of speech at all, in the real meaning of that name, but are more analogous with the interjections.'”—Professor Whitney.

356. Connectives (49).—There are five classes of connective words: Copula verbs (16a), relative (or conjunctive) pronouns (82), conjunctive adverbs (105), prepositions (26), and conjunctions (29). But of these only the last named are pure connectives.

(a) A pure connective is a word that does nothing but connect other elements. (b) The copula verbs assert as well as connect. (16.)

(c) The relative pronouns connect, but at the same time they have some other office in the sentence, either as subject, object, or adjective-relative. (82 and 119.)

(d) The conjunctive adverbs, aside from being connectives, are also a modifying effect on other words. (105.)

(e) Prepositions are usually regarded as being pure connectives, but, in reality, their chief use is not to connect, but to introduce phrases that they help to form. They are a sort of phrase "article," as shown by the use of for to intro. 'uce a noun phrase. (222 a.)

357. Conjunctions (113a).—In speaking of those words that are "usually and naturally adverbs," but which at times become co-ordinate conjunctions, Professor Sill says: "When these words are so used, and, but, or, or nor can be