AUGAUG

71

for the great cost of the publication-leaving him, however, | beside the stream Menios (Mýv=moon); and his daughter The task of a very inadequate compensation for his extraordinary in-gamede was, like Medeia and Circe, skilled in witchcraft, dustry and skill. The first volume was published at New and connected with the moon goddess. York in the end of the year 1830, the second in 1834, the Hercules was to clear out all his stalls in one day, and Augeias had third in 1837, and the fourth and last in 1839. The whole without help. This he did by making an opening in the consists of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of wall and turning the stream through them. birds the size of life. It is certainly the most magnificent promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, work of the kind ever given to the world, and is well char- alleging that Hercules had acted only in the service of acterised by Cuvier, "C'est le plus magnifique monument Eurystheus. que l'Art ait encore élevé à la Nature."

During the preparation and publication of his great work Audubon made several excursions from Great Britain. In the summer of 1828 he visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Cuvier, Humboldt, and other celebrated naturalists, and received from them every mark of honour and esteem. The following winter he passed in London. In April of 1830 he revisited the United States of America, and again explored the forests of the central and southern federal territories. In the following year he returned to London and Edinburgh, but the August of 1831 found him The succeeding winter and spring again in New York. he spent in Florida and South Carolina; and in the summer of 1832 he, set out for the Northern States, with an intention of studying the annual migrations of birds, particularly of the passenger pigeon, of which he has given a striking description; but his career was arrested at Boston by a severe attack of cholera, which detained him there till the middle of August. After that he explored the coasts, lakes, rivers, and mountains of North America, from Labrador and Canada to Florida, during a series of laborious journeys, that occupied him for three years. From Charleston, accompanied by his wife and family, he took his third departure for Britain. During his earlier residence in Edinburgh he had begun to publish his Amerisan Ornithological Biography, which at length filled five The first was issued there by Adam large octavo volumes. Black in 1831; the last appeared in 1839. This book is admirable for the vivid pictures it presents of the habits of The the birds, and the adventures of the naturalist. descriptions are characteristically accurate and interesting. In 1839 Audubon bade a final adieu to Europe; and returning to his native country, he published, in a more popular form, his Birds of America, in seven octavo volumes, the last of which appeared in 1844. His ardent love of nature still prompted him to new enterprises, and he set out on fresh excursions; but in these he was always accompanied by his two sons, and one or two other naturalists. The result of these excursions was the projection of a new work, The Quadrupeds of America, in atlas folio, and also a Biography of American Quadrupeds, both of The which were commenced at Philadelphia in 1840. latter was completed in 1850, and is, perhaps, even superior to his Ornithological Biography.

To great intelligence in observing, and accuracy in delineating nature, to a vigorous, handsome frame, and Audubon united very pleasing expressive features, estimable mental qualities, and a deep sense of religion without a trace of bigotry. His conversation was animated and instructive, his manner unassuming, and he always spoke with gratitude to Heaven for the very happy life he had been permitted to enjoy. He died, after a short illness, in his own residence on the banks of the Hudson, at New York, on the 27th of January 1851. See Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon the Naturalist, edited, from materials supplied by his widow, by Robert Buchanan, London, 1868. AUGEIAS (Avycías, Avyéas, cf. λíov avyý), in Greek He was a prince of Legend, a son of Helios, the sun. Elis, and, consistently with his being a descendant of the sun-god, had an immense wealth of herds, including twelve He lived bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swan..

AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, Duke of Castiglione, was the son of obscure parents, and born in After serving for a short period in the armies 1757. of France, he entered the Neapolitan service, and for some time supported himself by teaching fencing at Naples. In 1792 he joined the Republican army that watched the movements of Spain. He rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general, and commanded a division in the army of Italy. Here he distinguished himself in numerous engagements by his energy, skill, and vigorous rapidity of To him were due in great measure the brilliant action. victories of Millesimo, Dego, and Castiglione, and he led the decisive charges at the bloody combats of Lodi and Arcola. In 1797 he took part with Barras and the Directory, and was an active agent in the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor; but his jealousy of his former comrade, Bonaparte, prevented their intimacy; and he was one of the general officers not privy to the noted revolution of the 18th of Brumaire (Nov. 9) 1799. He received, however, the command of the army of Holland and the Lower Rhine, but was superseded in 1801. From that time he lived in retirement, till 1804, when he was made a marshal of the French empire, and in the following year he was appointed to the command of the expedition against the Vorarlberg, which he quickly subdued. He also distinguished himself greatly in the battles of Jena and Eylau. In 1809-10 he commanded the French in Catalonia, and tarnished his laurels by his great cruelty to the Spaniards; but he was again more honourably conspicuous in the campaign of 1813, especially in the terrible battle of Leipsic. In 1814 he had the command of a reserve army at Lyons, and might have made a diversion in favour of Napoleon, but he preferred to submit, and retained a command under the Bourbons. In the following year he at first refused to join Napoleon on his escape from Elba, and when he would He also failed to obtain military office under afterwards have accepted a command his services were declined. the new dynasty, and after having had the painful task of being one of the commission on the trial of Ney, ho returned to his estates, where he died of dropsy in 1816.

AUGSBURG, a celebrated city of Germany, capital of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria, the principal It derives seat of the commerce of South Germany, and of commercial transactions with the south of Europe. its name from the Roman Emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhætia by Drusus, established a Roman colony named Augusta Vindelicorum (about 14 B.C.) In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against Thassilon, duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and After this it rose rapidly into importance as a division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of Swabia. manufacturing and commercial town, and its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile. it was

the scene of numerous events of historical importance. | rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are various and

It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in

Sketch Plan of Augsburg.

K, Maximilian's Platz

1. Cathedral.

2. Frohnhof.

3. Palace.

4. Court Garden.

5. Barefoot Church.

6. Shambles.

7. Town-Hall.
8. Exchange (Börse).

important, consisting of woollen, linen, cotton, and silk goods, watches, jewellery, and goldsmith-work, mathematical instruments, machinery, leather, paper, chemical stuffs, types, &c. Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried on; but printing, litho graphy, and publishing have acquired a considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers being the Allgemeine Zeitung or Augsburg Gazette. Augs. burg is an important railway junction. On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the little village of Lechhausen. Population in 1871. 51,270.

AUGSBURG CONFESSION. See CREEDS.

AUGURS, in Roman Antiquities, a college or board appointed to interpret, according to the books (libri augurales) in which the science of divination was laid down, the auspicia or signs of approval or disapproval sent by Jupiter on the occasion of any public transaction. At first, it is said, there were only two augurs, one from each of the tribes Ramnes and Tities. Two more were added. by Numa, and again other two for the third tribe of Luceres, that is six altogether. But in the year 300 B.C. it is certain that there were only four, to which number five plebeian places were added by the lex Ogulnia. Sulla increased the number to fifteen, at which it continued, with the exception that Caesar appointed a sixteenth, and the emperors frequently added as supra numerum persons of distinction, or of their own family. An augur retained his office and sacred character for life. The college had the right of election of new members. The insignia of their office were the lituus, or crook, and the dress called trabea. The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as counsel The latter, however, was the more difficult of interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged the 13. St Katherine's Nun- system of divination with which the augurs were occupied,

9. Police.

10. Firehouse.

11. St Moritz Church.

nery.

14. St Ulrich's Church.

15. Military Stables.
16. Holy Ghost Hospital.

the war of 1803 it suffered severely. Of its conventions the most memorable are those which gave birth to the Augsburg confession (1530) and to the Augsburg alliance (1686). The city is pleasantly situated in an extensive and fertile plain, between the rivers Wertach and Lech, 36 miles W.N.W. of Munich, lat. 48° 21' 44" N., long. 10° 54' 42" F Its fortifications were dismantled in 1703, and have since been converted into public promenades. Maximilian Street is remarkable for its breadth and architectural magnificence. One of its most interesting edifices is the Fugger House, of which the entire front is painted in fresco. Among the public buildings of Augsburg most worthy of notice is the town-hall, said to be one of the finest in Germany, built by Elias Holl in 1616-20. One of its rooms, called the "Golden Hall," from the profusion of its gilding, is 113 feet long, 59 broad, and 53 high. The palace of the bishops, where the memorable Confession of Faith was presented to Charles V., is now used for Government offices. The cathedral dates in its oldest portions from the 10th century. There are also various churches and chapels, a school of arts, a polytechnic institution, a picture gallery in the former monastery of St Catherine, a museum, observatory, botanical gardens, an exchange, gymnasium, deaf-mute institution, orphan asylum, public library, several remarkable fountains dating from the 16th century, &c. The "Fuggerei," built in 1519 by the brothers Fugger, consists of 106 small houses, Jet to indigent Roman Catholic citizens at a merely nominal

to men.

and which is expressed in the terms augurium and auspicium (aves gerere, aves spicere). The presence of augurs was required only in observing signs in the sky, where their first duty was to mark out with the lituus a space or templum in the sky within which the omen must occur. Such observations being properly made only in the city of Rome, augurs are not found elsewhere. Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (auspicia impetrativa), or incidental (auspicia oblativa). Of such signs there were five classes:-(1.) Signs in the sky (cælestia auspicia), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable; and this being a very direct and impressive token of the will of Jupiter, the observation of it was held to apply to all public transactions fixed for the day on which it occurred. Whether favourable or the reverse in its direction, the appearance of lightning was held as a voice of the god against business being done in the public assemblies. But since the person charged to take the auspices (de cœlo servasse) for a certain day was constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, it happened that this became a favourite means of putting off meetings of the public assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed on it in the later times of the republic. When a new consul, prætor, or quæstor entered on his first day of office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2.) Signs from birds (signa ex avibus), with reference to the direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other

1

sounds. In matters of ordinary life on which divine
counsel was prayed for, it was usual to have recourse to
this form of divination. For public affairs it was, by the
time of Cicero, superseded by the fictitious observation of
lightning. (3.) Feeding of birds (auspicia ex tripudiis),
which consisted in observing whether a bird,-usually a
fowl,-on grain being thrown before it, let fall a particle
from its mouth (tripudium solistimum). If it did so, the
will of the gods was in favour of the enterprise in question.
The simplicity of this ceremony recommended it for very
general use, particularly in the army when on service. The
fowls were kept in cages by a servant, styled pullarius.
In imperial times are mentioned the decuriales pullarii.
(4.) Signs from animals (pedestria auspicia, or ex quadru
pedibus), i.e., observation of the course of, or sounds
uttered by, quadrupeds and serpents within a fixed space,
corresponding to the observations of the flight of birds, but
much less frequently employed. It had gone out of use by
the time of Cicero. (5.) Warnings (signa ex diris), con-
sisting of all unusual phenomena, but chiefly such as
boded ill. Being accidental in their occurrence, they
belonged to the auguria oblativa, and their interpretation
was not a matter for the augurs, unless occurring in the
course of some public transaction, in which case they
formed a divine veto against it. Otherwise, reference was
made for an interpretation to the Pontifices in olden times,
afterwards frequently to the Sibylline books, or the Etruscan
haruspices, when the incident was not already provided for
by a rule, as, for example, that it was unlucky for a person
leaving his house to meet a raven, that the sudden death
of a person from epilepsy at a public meeting was a sign to
break up the assembly, not to mention other instances of
adverse omens.
A Roman, however, did not necessarily
regard a warning as binding unless it was clearly appre-
hended. Not only could an accidental oversight render it
useless, but to some extent measures could be taken to
prevent any warning being noticed. At sacrifices, for
instance, the flute was played ne quid aliud exaudiatur
(Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxviii. 2, 11).

|

varied, so as to have a close relation to the object to which
it referred. A spot being selected, the official charged to
make the observation (spectio) pitched his tent there some
days before. A matter postponed through adverse signs
from the gods could on the following or some future day
be again brought forward for the auspices (repetere
auspicia). If an error (vitium) occurred in the auspices,
the augurs could, of their own accord or at the request of
the senate, inform themselves of the circumstances, and
decree upon it. A consul could refuse to accept their
decree while he remained in office, but on retiring he
could be prosecuted. Auspicia oblativa referred mostly to
the comitia. A magistrate vas not bound to take notice
of signs reported merely by a private person, but he could
not overlook such a report from a brother magistrate.
example, if a quæstor on his entry to office observed light-
ning and announced it to the consul, the latter must delay
the public assembly for the day.
(A. S. M.)

For

AUGUST, originally Sextilis, as being the sixth month in the pre-Julian Roman year, received its present name from the Emperor Augustus. The preceding month, Quintilis, had been called July after the great Julius Cæsar, and the senate thought to propitiate the emperor by conferring a similar honour upon him. August was selected, not as being the natal month of Augustus, but because in it his greatest good fortune had happened to him. In that month he had been admitted to the consulate, had thrice celebrated a triumph, hau received the allegiance of the soldiers stationed on the Janiculum, had concluded the civil wars, and had subdued Egypt. As July contained thirty-one days, and August only thirty, it was thought necessary to add another day to the latter month, in order that Augustus might not be in any respect inferior to Julius.

AUGUSTA, the capital of the State of Maine, and seat of justice, is situated on the Kennebec River (in Kennebec county), 43 miles from its mouth, in lat. 44° 19′ N., long. 69° 50′ W. The city lies mainly on the right bank of the Kennebec River, which is here crossed by a bridge 520 feet long. The business portion of the city was destroyed by fire in 1865, but has since been rebuilt. Its principal public buildings are the State house, State insane asylum, and United States' arsenal. It has several banks, daily and weekly newspapers, and numerous churches. The popula tion of Augusta, by the census of 1870, was 7808.

Among the other means of discovering the will of the gods were casting lots, oracles of Apollo (in the hands of the college sacris faciun lis), but chiefly the examination of the entrails of animals slain for sacrifice. Anything abnormal found there was brought under the notice of the augurs as warnings, but usually the Etruscan haruspices were employed for this. The persons entitled to ask for an expression of the divine will on a public affair were the magistrates. To the highest offices, including all persons of consular and prætorian rank, belonged the right of taking auspicia maxima; to the inferior offices of ædile and questor, the auspicia minora; the differences between these, however, must have been small. The subjects for which auspicia publica were always taken were the election of magistrates, their entering on office, the holding of a public assembly to pass decrees, the setting out of an army for war. They could only be taken in Rome itself; and in case of a commander having to renew his auspicia, he must either return to Rome or select a spot in the foreign country to represent the hearth of that city. The time for observing auspices was, as a rule, between midnight and dawn of the day for which the transaction was fixed about which they were desired. But whether it was so ordered in the ritual, or whether this was to leave the whole day free, is not known. In military affairs this course was not always possible, as in the case of taking auspices before crossing a river. The founding of colonies, the beginning of a battle. before calling together an army, before sittings of the senate, at decisions of peace or war, were occasions, AUGUSTAN HISTORY is the title bestowed upon a not always but frequently, for taking auspices. The place collection of the biographies of the Roman emperors, from where the ceremony was performed was not fixed but | Hadrian to Carinus, written under Diocletian and Constan

AUGUSTA, a city of Georgia, in the United States of America, the capital of the county of Richmond. It is situated in a beautiful plain, on the Savannah River, 231 miles from its mouth, and has extensive railway communication. Like other American cities it is spacious and regular in its plan, Greene Street, for example, being 168 feet in width, with a row of trees extending along each side. The principal buildings are the city hall, a masonic hall, an oddfellows' hall, the Richmond academy, the Georgia medical college, the opera-house, and an orphan asylum. Besides these, the city possesses an arsenal, water-works, a number of banks, newspaper offices, extensive cotton factories and flour mills, several foundries, two tobacco factories, &c. Water-power is abundantly supplicd from the river by the Augusta canal, which was constructed in 1845. Augusta was an important place during the revolutionary war, and continued to flourish amazingly till the opening of the Georgia railway. A temporary decline then took place, owing to the change in the methods of traffic; but a new current of prosperity speedily set in, which still continues. Population in 1870, 15,386.

III.

law. Spartianus's reference to himself as "Diocletian's | pagan at the time of his son's birth, His mother, Monica, own" seems to indicate that he was a domestic in the imperial household. They address their patrons with deference, acknowledging their own deficiencies, and seem painfully conscious of the profession of literature having fallen upon evil days.

The first edition of the Augustan History was printed at Milan in 1475, by Bonus Accursius, along with Suetonius. Being based upon the best MSS. it is superior to any of its successors until Casaubon's (1603). Casaubon manifested great critical ability in his notes, but for want of a good MS. left the restoration of the text to Salmasius (1620), whose notes are a most remarkable monument of erudition combined with acuteness in verbal criticism and general vigour of intellect. Little has since been done for the improvement of the text, which is still in a very unsatisfactory state. accurate edition is that by Jordan and Eyssenhardt (Berlin, 1863), The most grounded on a collation of the Bamberg MS. with the Palatine (now the Vatican) used by Salmasius. The most important separate dissertations on the Augustan historians are that on the sixth volume of Heine's Opuscula Philologica; Brocks's essay on the first four of them (Königsberg, 1869); Dirksen's elucidation of their references to Roman jurisprudence (Leipsic, 1842); Peter's critical emendations (Posen, 1863); Brunner's monograph on Vopiscus in the second volume of Büdinger's Untersuchungen zur Römischen Kaisergeschichte, and J. Müller's disquisition in the third (Leipsic, 1868-691 There is no English translation. (R. G.) AUGUSTI, JOHN CHRISTIAN WILLIAM, a distinguished German theologian, was born at Eschenberga, near Gotha, in 1772. He was of Jewish descent, his grandfather having been a rabbi who had been converted to the Christian faith. His early education he received partly from Moller, pastor of Gierstädt, who introduced him to the study of Hebrew, and partly at the gymnasium at Gotha. He then proceeded to the university of Jena, and completed his studies there in 1793. In 1798 he obtained a post as privat-docent, or university lecturer on philosophy, and began to turn his attention chiefly to Oriental subjects. In 1800 he was made professor extraordinary of philosophy, and three years after was appointed to the chair of Oriental languages. In 1808 he received the degree of doctor of theology, and in 1812 accepted a call to the chair of theology at the recently renovated university of Breslau. During the troubled years 1813 and 1814 he acted as rector, and received great praise for his firm and judicious conduct. In 1819 he was transferred to the university of Bonn, and in 1828 he united with his professorship the office of director of the consistory. He died at Coblentz in 1841. Augusti had little sympathy with the modern philosophical interpretations of dogma, and although he took up a position of free criticism with regard to the Biblical narratives, he yet held fast to the traditional faith. His works on theology (History of Dogma, 1805, and System of Dogmatics, 1809) are simple statements of fact, and do not attempt a speculative treatment of their subjects. In addition to several exegetical works, his most important writings are the Denkwürdigkeiten aus der Christlichen Archäologie, 12 vols., 1817-31, a partially digested mass of materials, and the Handbuch der Christ. Archäologie, 3 vols., 1836-7, which gives the substance of the larger work in a more compact and systematic form.

AUGUSTINE (AURELIUS AUGUSTINUS), one of the four great fathers of the Latin Church, and admittedly the greatest of the four, more profound than Ambrose, his spiritual father, more original and systematic than Jerome, his contemporary and correspondent, and intellectually far more distinguished than Gregory the Great, the last of the series. The theological position and influence of Augustine may be said to be unrivalled. No single name has ever exercised such power over the Christian church, and no one mind ever made such an impression upon Christian thought. Aurelius Augustinus was born at Tagaste (Tajelt), a town of Numidia, on the 13th of November 354 A.D. His father, Patricius, was a burgess of this town, and was still a

was not only a Christian, but a woman of the most elevated, tender, and devoted piety, whose patient prayerfulness for both her husband and son (at length crowned with success in both cases), and whose affectionate and beautiful enthusiasm, have passed into a touching type of womanly saintliness for all ages. She early instructed her son in the faith and love of Jesus Christ, and for a time her instruction wished to be baptised; but when the danger was past, the seems to have impressed his youthful mind. Falling ill he rite was deferred, and, notwithstanding all his mother's admonitions and prayers, he grew up without any profession of Christian piety, or any devotion to Christian sensual disposition, he early gave way to the unbridled principles. Inheriting from his father a vehement and impulses of passion, and while still a mere youth, formed a connection, common enough at the time, but at variance with the principles of Christian morality. As the result of the connection he became the father of a son, whom he named Adeodatus in a fit of pious emotion, and to whom he was passionately attached.

In the midst of all his youthful pleasures Augustine was an earnest student. His father, observing the early development of his talents, formed the ambition of training him to the brilliant and lucrative career of a rhetorician, and he seems to have spared no expense to equip him for this career. The youth studied not only at his native town, but at Madaura and Carthage, and especially devoted himself to the Latin poets-many traces of his love for which are to be found in his writings. His acquaintance with Greek literature was much more limited, and, indeed, it has been doubted whether he could use, in the original, either the Hebrew or Greek Scriptures. Apparently, he was in the habit of using translations of Plato (Confess., viii. 2), but, on the other hand, Greek words frequently occur in his writings correctly rendered and discriminated; and he speaks in one of his epistles to Marcellinus (LIX. tom. ii. 294) of referring to the Greek Psalter and finding, in reference to certain difficulties, that it agreed with the Vulgate. Clausen, who has particularly investigated the point, sums up the evidence to the effect that Augustine was "fairly instructed in Greek grammar, and a subtle distinguisher of words," but that beyond this his knowledge was insufficient for a thorough comprehension of Greek books, and especially for those in the Hellenistic dialect.

While a student at Carthage he was particularly attracted by the theatre, the spectacles at which were of unusual magnificence. To his enthusiastic and sensuous spirit they were irresistible, and the extent to which he seems to have yielded to the fascination is sufficient proof of his active alienation from Christianity at this period. The Christian church, as it has been said, "abhorred the pagan theatre. The idolatrous rites, the lascivious attitudes, the gladiatorial shows, which were its inseparable accompaniments, were equally opposed to the dogmatic monotheism, to the picty, and to the mercy of the gospel." One of the most significant signs of a man having become a Christian was his habitual absence from the theatre. No one was more emphatic on this point afterwards than Augustine himself, and as the result of his own experience, he seems to have doubted, apart from the gross immoralities of the pagan stage, whether the indulgence in fictitious joys and woes is a warrantable excitement (Confess., iii, 2).

Cicero's Hortensius, which he read in his nineteenth year, first awakened in Augustine's mind the spirit of specula

1 "Augustinus extitit, ut alii, Ebræ ac Græcæ linguæ ignarus.' (Walch, Bibl. Patrist., p. 352.) "Imperitus non tantum Hebraicæ sed etiam Græcæ linguæ, ipsos fontes adire non potuit, sed solam fere translationem Latinam explicare conatus est."-(Rosenmüller, Hist. Interpret., iii. 40.)