of the prepared fibre, valued at £27,783, were exported, besides a considerable quantity of manufactured rope. Those great necessities of commerce, roads and railways, are being constructed in various directions. A line is in course of formation from Auckland up the valley of the Waikato, as far as Newcastle, at the confluence of the Waipa, and a survey has been made for about 20 miles further. A road runs from Bowen, on the Bay of Plenty, across the country, through the wonderful lake district, with its boiling fountains, steam geysers, and mud-baths, round by the east coast of Taupo Lake, and over the highlands to Napier, in Hawke's Bay province. The history of Auckland was for long the history of New Zealand, and will be fully treated under that heading. (See NEW ZEALAND.) For a descriptive account of a large part of the province, the reader is referred to Dr Hochstetter's valuable works, especially to his New Zealand, 1863. A very graphic sketch of some of the natural curiosities is furnished by Anthony Trollope in his Australia and New Zealand, vol. ii. AUCKLAND, the capital of the above province, is finely situated on an isthmus in the N.W. peninsula, on the S. shore of the Waitemata harbour, which is formed by an inlet of the Hauraki Gulf. Lat. 36° 51′ S., long. 174° 50'. On the other side of the isthmus lies the harbour and town of Manukau, which serves as a supplementary port to the city. Auckland was founded in 1840 by Governor Hobson, and became a burgh in 1851. It was till 1865 the seat of the Government, which is now situated at Wellington. The city has a fine appearance, especially from the harbour, and is surrounded by a number of flourishing suburban villages, with several of which it is connected by railway. Among the public buildings in the city and neighbourhood may be mentioned the governor's house, the cathedral, St John's Episcopal college, about 4 miles distant, the Auckland college and grammar school, the Episcopal grammar school, in the suburb of Parnell, the provincial hospital, the provincial lunatic asylum, and the orphanage at Parnell. A wharf, 1690 feet in length, has been built opposite the centre of the city, and affords excellent accommodation for the gradually increasing traffic of the harbour. In 1872, 170 non-colonial vessels, with a tonnage of 54,257 tons, entered the port, besides a large number of coasting ships. There are registered at Auckland 167 sailing vessels and 20 steamships, most of them of provincial build. The population, which was 7989 in 1862, had increased by 1871 to 12,937 (with the suburbs to 18,000), and is now estimated at about 21,000. AUCKLAND ISLANDS, a group discovered in 1806 by Captain Briscoe, of the English whaler "Ocean," about 180 miles S. of New Zealand, in lat. 50° 24', long. 166° 7' E. The islands, of volcanic origin, are very fertile, and are covered with forest. They were granted to the Messrs Enderby by the British Government as a whaling station, but the establishment was abandoned in 1852. (See Raynal's Auckland Islands, 1874.) AUCKLAND, WILLIAM EDEN, BARON, an eminent diplomatist and politician, third son of Sir Robert Eden, Bart., of West Auckland, was born in 1744. He was educated at Eton and Oxford, and adopted the profession of the law. At the age of twenty-seven he resigned his practice at the bar, and engaged in political life as under-secretary to Lord Suffolk. By the favour of the duke of Marlborough, he obtained a seat for Woodstock, and soon gave proof of his ability in the House. He attached himself to Lord North's party, and after serving under Lord Carlisle on the unsuccessful commission to the colonists in America, acted as secretary to that nobleman, when he held the post of viceroy in Ireland. During this time he had obtained the pffices of director and audi or of Greenwich Hospital, which probably yielded him an income sufficient for carrying on his political career. In 1783 he took a leading part in negotiating the remarkable coalition between North and Fox, and was rewarded by being made vice-treasurer of Ireland. In 1784 he opposed Pitt's proposal for commercial reciprocity with Ireland, but in so doing contrived to separate himself to some extent from his own party, and shortly after accepted from Pitt the office of plenipotentiary at Paris. Here he successfully negotiated the important commercial treaty with France; and after his appointment as ambassador to Spain, he rendered valuable service in settling the dispute between the British and French Governments with regard to the affairs of Holland. In 1789 he was made an Irish peer, with the title of Baron Auckland, and in 1793 he was raised to the British peerage as Baron Auckland, of West Auckland, Durham. For three years, 1798-1801, he held office as postmaster-general. He died suddenly in 1814. In 1776 he married the sister of the first earl of Minto, by whom he had a large family. Besides numerous pamphlets on political matters of the day, Lord Auckland wrote a treatise on the Principles of the Penal Law, 1771. His political conduct has been frequently censured; he was a skilful diplomatist, and as a statesman was specially remarkable for his clear grasp of economic principles. His Journal and Correspondence, 4 vols. 1860-1862, published by his son, the bishop of Bath and Wells, throws considerable light on the political history of his time. AUCKLAND, GEORGE EDEN, EARL OF, GovernorGeneral of India, born 20th August 1784, was the second son of the subject of the preceding notice. He completed his education at Oxford, and was admitted to the bar in 1809. His elder brother was drowned in the Thames in the following year; and in 1814, on the death of his father, he took his seat in the House of Lords as Baron Auckland. He supported the Reform party steadily by his vote, and in 1830 was made president of the Board of Trade and master of the Mint. In 1834 he held office for a few months as first lord of the Admiralty, and in 1835 he was appointed Governor-General of India. He proved himself to be a painstaking and laborious legislator, and devoted himself specially to the improvement of native schools, and the expansion of the commercial industry of the nation committed to his care. These useful labours were interrupted in 1838 by the hostile movements of the Persians, which excited the fears not only of the Anglo-Indian Government but of the home authorities. Lord Auckland resolved to enter upon a war in Afghanistan, and on the 1st October 1838, published at Simla his famous manifesto, The early operations were crowned with success, and the Governor-General received the title of Earl of Auckland. But reverses followed quickly, and in the ensuing cam paigns the British troops suffered the most severe disasters. Lord Auckland had the double mortification of seeing his policy a complete failure, and of being superseded before his errors could be rectified. In the autumn of 1841 he was succeeded in office by Lord Ellenborough, and returned to England in the following year. In 1846 he was made first lord of the Admiralty, which office he held until his death, 1st January 1849. He died unmarried, and the earldom became extinct. AUCTION, a mode of selling property by offering it to the highest bidder in a public competition. By 8 Vict. c. 15, the uniform duty of £10 per annum is imposed on every licence to carry on the business of auctioneer, but duties on sales by auction are abolished. It is the duty of an auctioneer to sell for the best price he can obtain, and his authority cannot be delegated to another unless by special permission of his employer. The auctioneer's name must be exhibited on some conspicuous place during the sal ander a penalty of £20. Sales by auction usually | AUDEUS, or AUDIUS, a reformer of the 4th century, by birth a Mesopotamian. He suffered much persecution from the Syrian clergy for his fearless censure of their irregular lives, and was expelled from the church, He was afterwards banished into Scythia, where he gained many followers and established the monastic system. He died there at an advanced age, about 370 A.D. The Audæans celebrated the feast of Easter on the same day as the Jewish Passover, and they were also charged with attributing to the Deity a human shape. They appear to have founded this opinion on Genesis i. 26. AUDE, a southern department of France, forming part of the old province of Languedoc, bounded on the E. by the Mediterranean, N. by the departments of Hérault and Tarn, N.W. by Upper Garonne, W. by Ariége, and S. by that of Eastern Pyrenees. It lies between lat. 42° 40′ and 34° 30′ N., and is 80 miles in length from E. to W., and 60 miles in breadth from N. to S. Area, 2341 square miles. The department of Aude is traversed on its western boundary from S. to N. by a mountain range of medium height, which unites the Pyrenees with the Southern Cevennes; and its northern frontier is occupied by the Black Mountains, the most western part of the Cevennes chain. The Corbières, a branch of the Pyrenees, runs in a S.W. and N.E. direction along the southern district. The Aude, its principal river, has almost its entire course in the department. Its principal affluents on the left are the Fresquel, Orbiel, Argent-Double, and Cesse; on the right, the Guette, Salse, and Orbieu. The canal of Languedoc, which unites the Atlantic with the Mediterranean, traverses the department from E. to W. The lowness of the coast causes a series of large lagunes, the chief of which are those of Bages, Sigean, Narbonne, Palme, and Leucate. The climate is variable, and often sudden in its alterations. The wind from the N.W., known as the Cers, blows with great violence, and the sea breeze is often laden with pestilential effluvia from the lagunes. Various kinds of wild animals, as the chamois, bear, wild boar, wolf, fox, and badger, inhabit the mountains and forests; game of all kinds is plentiful; and the coast and lagunes abound in fish. Mines of iron, copper, lead, manganese, cobalt, and antimony exist in the department; and, besides the beautiful marbles of Cascastel and Caunes, there are quarries of lithographic stone, gypsum, limestone, and sinto. The coal mines are for the most part abandoned. The mountains contain many mineral springs, both cold and thermal. The agriculture of the department is in a very flourishing condition. The meadows are extensive and well watered, and are pastured by numerous flocks and herds. The grain produce, consisting mainly of wheat, oats, rye, and Indian | AUDOUIN, JEAN VICTOR, & distinguished French | style. The Rape of the Sabines, after Poussin, is conentomologist, was born at Paris, April 27, 1797. sidered his masterpiece. He began the study of law, but was diverted from it by his strong predilection for natural history, which subsequently led him to enter the medical profession. In 1824 he was appointed assistant to Latreille in the entomological chair at the Paris museum of natural history, and succeeded him | in 1833. He established in 1824, in conjunction with Dumas and Adolphe Brongniart, the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, to which he made numerous valuable contributions, generally in co-operation with M. Milne-Edwards. The greater part of his other papers are contained in the Transactions of the Entomological Society, of which he was one of the founders, and for many years president. In 1838 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in 1841, more from the effects of mental than of bodily exhaustion. His principal work, Histoire des Insectes nuisibles à la Vigne, was continued after his death by Milne-Edwards and Blanchard, and published in 1842. AUDRAN, the name of a family of French artists and engravers, who for several generations were distinguished in the same line. The first who devoted himself to the art of engraving was Claude Audran, born 1592, and the last was Benoit, Claude's great-grandson, who died in 1712. The two most distinguished members of the family tre the following: AUDRAN, GÉRARD, or GIRARD, the most celebrated French engraver, was the third son of Claude Audran, and was born at Lyons in 1640. He was taught the first principles of design and engraving by his father; and, following the example of his brother, went to Paris to perfect himself in his art. He there, in 1666, engraved for Le Brun Constantine's Battle with Maxentius, his Triumph, and the Stoning of Stephen, which gave great satisfaction to the painter, and placed Audran in the very first rank of engravers at Paris. Next year he set out for Rome, where he resided three years, and engraved several fine plates. That great patron of the arts, M. Colbert, was so struck with the beauty of Audran's works, that he persuaded Louis XIV. to recall him to Paris. On his return he applied himself assiduously to engraving, and was appointed engraver to the king, from whom he received great encouragement. In the year 1681 he was admitted to the council of the Royal Academy. He died at Paris in 1703. His engravings of Le Brun's Battles of Alexander are regarded as the best of his numerous works. "He was," says the Abbé Fontenai, "the most celebrated engraver that ever existed in the historical line. We have several subjects, which he engraved from his own designs, that manifested as much taste as character and facility. But in the Battles of Alexander he surpassed even the expectations of Le Brun himself." Gérard published in 1683 a work entitled Les proportions du corps humain mesurées sur les plus belles figures de l'antiquité, which has been translated into English. AUDRAN, JEAN, nephew of Gérard, was born at Lyons in 1667. After having received instructions from his father, he went to Paris to perfect himself in the art of engraving under bis uncle, next to whom he was the most distinguished member of his family. At the age of twenty his genius began to display itself in a surprising manner; and his subsequent success was such, that in 1707 he obtained the title of engraver to the king, Louis XIV., who allowed him a pension, with apartments in the Gobelins; and the following year he was made a member of the Royal Academy. He was eighty years of age before he quitted the graver, and nearly ninety when he died. The best prints of this artist are those which appear not so pleasing to the eye at first sight. In these the etching constitutes a great part; and he has finished them in a bold, rough AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES, a well-known naturalist, was born in 1781 in Louisiana, where his parents, who were French Protestants, had taken up their residence while it was still a Spanish colony. They afterwards settled in Pennsylvania. From his early years he had a passion for observing the habits and appearances of birds, and attempting delineations of them from nature. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris, and remained there about two years, when among other studies he took some lessons in the drawing-school of David. On returning to America his father established him in a plantation in Pennsylvania, and he soon after married. But nothing could damp his ardour for natural history. For fifteen years he annually explored the depths of the primeval forests of America in long and hazardous expeditions, far from his family and his home. In these excursions he acquired the facility of making those spirited drawings of birds that gives such value to his magnificent work, The Birds of America. At that period he had not dreamed of any publication of his labours; as he informs us, "it was not the desire of fame that prompted to those long exiles; it was simply the enjoyment of nature." He afterwards removed with his family to the village of Henderson on the banks of the Ohio, where he continued his researches in natural history for several years, and at length set out for Philadelphia with a portfolio containing 200 sheets filled with coloured delineations of about 1000 birds. Business obliged him to quit Philadelphia unexpectedly for some weeks, and he deposited his portfolio in the warehouse of a friend; but to his intense dismay and mortification he found, on his return, that these precious fruits of his wanderings and his labours had been totally destroyed by rats. The shock threw him into a fever of several weeks' duration, that well-nigh proved fatal. But his native energy returned with returning health; and he resumed his gun and his game-bag, his pencils and his drawing-book, and plunged again into the recesses of the backwoods. In about three years he had again filled his portfolio, and then rejoined his family, who had in the meantime gone to Louisiana. After a short sojourn there he set out for the Old World, to exhibit to the ornithologists of Europe the riches of America in that department of natural history. In 1826 Audubon arrived at Liverpool, where the merits of his spirited delineations of American birds were immediately recognised. An exhibition of them to the public in the galleries of the Royal Institution of that town was so successful that it was repeated at Manchester and at Edinburgh, where they were no less admired. When he proposed to publish a work on the birds of America, several naturalists advised him to issue the work in large quarto, as the most useful size for the lovers of natural history, and the most likely to afford him a sufficient number of subscribers to remunerate his labours. At first he yielded to this advice, and acknowledged its soundness; but finally he decided that his work should eclipse every other ornithological publication. Every bird was to be delineated of the size of life, and to each species a whole page was to be devoted; consequently, the largest elephant folio paper was to receive the impressions. This necessarily increased the expense of the work so much as to put it beyond the reach of most scientific naturalists-which accounts for the small number of persons who, for a considerable time, could be reckoned among his supporters in the gigantic undertaking. The exceptionally high character of the work, however, gradually became known; and a sufficient number of subscribers was at length obtained in Great Britain and America, during the ten or twelve years that the work was going through the press, to indemnify him AUGAUG 71 for the great cost of the publication-leaving him, however, | beside the stream Menios (Mýv=moon); and his daughter The task of a very inadequate compensation for his extraordinary in-gamede was, like Medeia and Circe, skilled in witchcraft, dustry and skill. The first volume was published at New and connected with the moon goddess. York in the end of the year 1830, the second in 1834, the Hercules was to clear out all his stalls in one day, and Augeias had third in 1837, and the fourth and last in 1839. The whole without help. This he did by making an opening in the consists of 435 coloured plates, containing 1055 figures of wall and turning the stream through them. birds the size of life. It is certainly the most magnificent promised him a tenth of the herd, but refused this, work of the kind ever given to the world, and is well char- alleging that Hercules had acted only in the service of acterised by Cuvier, "C'est le plus magnifique monument Eurystheus. que l'Art ait encore élevé à la Nature." During the preparation and publication of his great work Audubon made several excursions from Great Britain. In the summer of 1828 he visited Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Cuvier, Humboldt, and other celebrated naturalists, and received from them every mark of honour and esteem. The following winter he passed in London. In April of 1830 he revisited the United States of America, and again explored the forests of the central and southern federal territories. In the following year he returned to London and Edinburgh, but the August of 1831 found him The succeeding winter and spring again in New York. he spent in Florida and South Carolina; and in the summer of 1832 he, set out for the Northern States, with an intention of studying the annual migrations of birds, particularly of the passenger pigeon, of which he has given a striking description; but his career was arrested at Boston by a severe attack of cholera, which detained him there till the middle of August. After that he explored the coasts, lakes, rivers, and mountains of North America, from Labrador and Canada to Florida, during a series of laborious journeys, that occupied him for three years. From Charleston, accompanied by his wife and family, he took his third departure for Britain. During his earlier residence in Edinburgh he had begun to publish his Amerisan Ornithological Biography, which at length filled five The first was issued there by Adam large octavo volumes. Black in 1831; the last appeared in 1839. This book is admirable for the vivid pictures it presents of the habits of The the birds, and the adventures of the naturalist. descriptions are characteristically accurate and interesting. In 1839 Audubon bade a final adieu to Europe; and returning to his native country, he published, in a more popular form, his Birds of America, in seven octavo volumes, the last of which appeared in 1844. His ardent love of nature still prompted him to new enterprises, and he set out on fresh excursions; but in these he was always accompanied by his two sons, and one or two other naturalists. The result of these excursions was the projection of a new work, The Quadrupeds of America, in atlas folio, and also a Biography of American Quadrupeds, both of The which were commenced at Philadelphia in 1840. latter was completed in 1850, and is, perhaps, even superior to his Ornithological Biography. To great intelligence in observing, and accuracy in delineating nature, to a vigorous, handsome frame, and Audubon united very pleasing expressive features, estimable mental qualities, and a deep sense of religion without a trace of bigotry. His conversation was animated and instructive, his manner unassuming, and he always spoke with gratitude to Heaven for the very happy life he had been permitted to enjoy. He died, after a short illness, in his own residence on the banks of the Hudson, at New York, on the 27th of January 1851. See Life and Adventures of J. J. Audubon the Naturalist, edited, from materials supplied by his widow, by Robert Buchanan, London, 1868. AUGEIAS (Avycías, Avyéas, cf. λíov avyý), in Greek He was a prince of Legend, a son of Helios, the sun. Elis, and, consistently with his being a descendant of the sun-god, had an immense wealth of herds, including twelve He lived bulls sacred to Helios, and white as swan.. AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANÇOIS CHARLES, Duke of Castiglione, was the son of obscure parents, and born in After serving for a short period in the armies 1757. of France, he entered the Neapolitan service, and for some time supported himself by teaching fencing at Naples. In 1792 he joined the Republican army that watched the movements of Spain. He rose rapidly to the rank of brigadier-general, and commanded a division in the army of Italy. Here he distinguished himself in numerous engagements by his energy, skill, and vigorous rapidity of To him were due in great measure the brilliant action. victories of Millesimo, Dego, and Castiglione, and he led the decisive charges at the bloody combats of Lodi and Arcola. In 1797 he took part with Barras and the Directory, and was an active agent in the revolution of the 18th of Fructidor; but his jealousy of his former comrade, Bonaparte, prevented their intimacy; and he was one of the general officers not privy to the noted revolution of the 18th of Brumaire (Nov. 9) 1799. He received, however, the command of the army of Holland and the Lower Rhine, but was superseded in 1801. From that time he lived in retirement, till 1804, when he was made a marshal of the French empire, and in the following year he was appointed to the command of the expedition against the Vorarlberg, which he quickly subdued. He also distinguished himself greatly in the battles of Jena and Eylau. In 1809-10 he commanded the French in Catalonia, and tarnished his laurels by his great cruelty to the Spaniards; but he was again more honourably conspicuous in the campaign of 1813, especially in the terrible battle of Leipsic. In 1814 he had the command of a reserve army at Lyons, and might have made a diversion in favour of Napoleon, but he preferred to submit, and retained a command under the Bourbons. In the following year he at first refused to join Napoleon on his escape from Elba, and when he would He also failed to obtain military office under afterwards have accepted a command his services were declined. the new dynasty, and after having had the painful task of being one of the commission on the trial of Ney, ho returned to his estates, where he died of dropsy in 1816. AUGSBURG, a celebrated city of Germany, capital of the circle of Swabia and Neuburg in Bavaria, the principal It derives seat of the commerce of South Germany, and of commercial transactions with the south of Europe. its name from the Roman Emperor Augustus, who, on the conquest of Rhætia by Drusus, established a Roman colony named Augusta Vindelicorum (about 14 B.C.) In the 5th century it was sacked by the Huns, and afterwards came under the power of the Frankish kings. It was almost entirely destroyed in the war of Charlemagne against Thassilon, duke of Bavaria; and after the dissolution and After this it rose rapidly into importance as a division of that empire, it fell into the hands of the dukes of Swabia. manufacturing and commercial town, and its merchant princes, the Fuggers and Welsers, rivalled the Medici of Florence; but the alterations produced in the currents of trade by the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries occasioned a great decline. In 1276 it was raised to the rank of a free imperial city, which it retained, with many changes in its internal constitution, till 1806, when it was annexed to the kingdom of Bavaria. Meanwhile. it was the scene of numerous events of historical importance. | rent. The manufactures of Augsburg are various and It was besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, and in 1635 it surrendered to the imperial forces; in 1703 it was bombarded by the electoral prince of Bavaria, and forced to pay a contribution of 400,000 dollars; and in Sketch Plan of Augsburg. K, Maximilian's Platz 1. Cathedral. 2. Frohnhof. 3. Palace. 4. Court Garden. 5. Barefoot Church. 6. Shambles. 7. Town-Hall. 8. Exchange (Börse). important, consisting of woollen, linen, cotton, and silk goods, watches, jewellery, and goldsmith-work, mathematical instruments, machinery, leather, paper, chemical stuffs, types, &c. Copper-engraving, for which it was formerly noted, is no longer carried on; but printing, lithography, and publishing have acquired a considerable development, one of the best-known Continental newspapers being the Allgemeine Zeitung or Augsburg Gazette. Augs. burg is an important railway junction. On the opposite side of the river, which is here crossed by a bridge, lies the little village of Lechhausen. Population in 1871. 51,270. AUGSBURG CONFESSION. See CREEDS. AUGURS, in Roman Antiquities, a college or board appointed to interpret, according to the books (libri augurales) in which the science of divination was laid down, the auspicia or signs of approval or disapproval sent by Jupiter on the occasion of any public transaction. At first, it is said, there were only two augurs, one from each of the tribes Ramnes and Tities. Two more were added. by Numa, and again other two for the third tribe of Luceres, that is six altogether. But in the year 300 B.C. it is certain that there were only four, to which number five plebeian places were added by the lex Ogulnia. Sulla increased the number to fifteen, at which it continued, with the exception that Cæsar appointed a sixteenth, and the emperors frequently added as supra numerum persons of distinction, or of their own family. An augur retained his office and sacred character for life. The college had the right of election of new members. The insignia of their office were the lituus, or crook, and the dress called trabea. The natural region to look to for signs of the will of Jupiter was the sky, where lightning and the flight of birds seemed directed by him as counsel The latter, however, was the more difficult of interpretation, and upon it, therefore, mainly hinged the 18. St Katherine's Nun- system of divination with which the augurs were occupied, 9. Police. 10. Firehouse. 11. St Moritz Church. nery. 14. St Ulrich's Church. 15. Military Stables. the war of 1803 it suffered severely. Of its conventions the to men. and which is expressed in the terms augurium and auspicium (aves gerere, aves spicere). The presence of augurs was required only in observing signs in the sky, where their first duty was to mark out with the lituus a space or templum in the sky within which the omen must occur. Such observations being properly made only in the city of Rome, augurs are not found elsewhere. Signs of the will of the gods were of two kinds, either in answer to a request (auspicia impetrativa), or incidental (auspicia oblativa). Of such signs there were five classes:-(1.) Signs in the sky (caelestia auspicia), consisting chiefly of thunder and lightning, but not excluding falling stars and other phenomena. Lightning from left to right was favourable, from right to left unfavourable; and this being a very direct and impressive token of the will of Jupiter, the observation of it was held to apply to all public transactions fixed for the day on which it occurred. Whether favourable or the reverse in its direction, the appearance of lightning was held as a voice of the god against business being done in the public assemblies. But since the person charged to take the auspices (de cœlo servasse) for a certain day was constitutionally subject to no other authority who could test the truth or falsehood of his statement that he had observed lightning, it happened that this became a favourite means of putting off meetings of the public assembly. Restrictions were, however, imposed on it in the later times of the republic. When a new consul, prætor, or quæstor entered on his first day of office and prayed the gods for good omens, it was a matter of custom to report to him that lightning from the left had been seen. (2.) Signs from birds (signa ex avibus), with reference to the direction of their flight, and also to their singing, or uttering other |