The central position of Attica in Greece was one main | later on occurs Cranaus, a personification of the rocky cause of its historical importance. When K. O. Müller ground, whence both Pindar and Aristophanes apply the compares Greece to a body, whose members are different in epithet xpavaaí to Athens; and further we meet with form, while a mutual connection and dependence naturally Erichthonius, whose name is inte ided to express the fruitexist between them, he speaks of Attica as one of the ful plains. Thucydides attributes to the nature of the thin extremities which served as the active instruments of the soil (i. 2, tò dentóyewv), which presented no attraction to body of Greece, and by which it was kept in constant con- invaders, the permanence of the same inhabitants in the nection with other countries. Hence in part arose the country, whence arose the claim to indigenousness on maritime character of its inhabitants; and when they had which the Athenians so greatly prided themselves; while at once taken to the sea, the string of neighbouring islands, the same time the richer ground fostered that fondness for Ceos, Cythnos, and others, some of which lay within sight country life, which is proved by the enthusiastic terms in of their coasts, and from one to another of which it was which it is always spoken of by Aristophanes, and by the possible to sail without losing sight of land, served to discontent of the people of Attica at being forced to betake tempt them on to further enterprises. Similarly on land, themselves to the city at the commencement of the Pelothe post it occupied between Northern Greece and the ponnesian War. That we are not justified in judging of Peloponnese materially influenced its relation to other states, the ancient condition of the soil by the aridity which preboth in respect of its alliances, such as that with Thessaly, vails at the present day, is shown by the fact that out of towards which country it was drawn by mutual hostility to the 174 demes into which Attica was divided, at least oneBoeotia, which lay between them,-a friendship of great tenth were named from trees or plants. service to Athens, because it brought to her aid the Thessalian cavalry, an arm with which she herself was feebly provided; and also in respect of offensive combinations of other powers, as that between Thebes and Sparta, which throughout an important part of Greek history were closely associated in their politics, through mutual dread of their powerful neighbour.

The mountains of Attica, which form its most characteristic feature, are to be regarded as a continuation of that chain which, starting from Mount Tymphrestus at the southern extremity of Pindus, passes through Phocis and Boeotia under the well-known names of Parnassus and Helicon; from this proceeds the range which, as Citharon in its western and Parnes in its eastern portion, separates Attica from Boeotia, throwing off spurs southward towards the Saronic Gulf in Ægaleos and Hymettus, which bound the plain of Athens. Again, the eastern extremity of l'arnes is joined by another line of hills, which, separating from Mount Eta, skirts the Euboic Gulf, and, after entering Attica, throws up the lofty pyramid of Pentelicus, overlooking the plain of Marathon, and then sinks towards the sea at Sunium to rise once more in the outlying islands. Finally, at the extreme west of the whole district, Citharon is bent round at right angles in the direction of the isthmus, at the northern approach to which it abuts against the mighty mass of Mount Geraneia, which is interposed between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. The elevation reached by some of these is considerable, both Citharon and Parnes being about 4600 feet, Hymettus 3360, and Pentelicus 2560, while Egaleos does not rise higher than 1536 feet. At the present day they are extremely bare, and, to one who is accustomed to Italian scenery, their severity is apt at first to be almost repellent; but after a time the eye is delighted with the delicacy of the outlines, the minute articulation of the minor ridges and valleys, and the symmetrical way in which nature has grouped the several mountains so as to form a balance between them. The appearance thus produced can be best described as classical.

The soil of Attica is light and thin, and requires very careful agriculture to develop its preduce. This feature belongs not only to the rocky mountain sides, but to some extent also to the maritime plains, and had considerable influence on the development of the inhabitants, both by enforcing industrious habits, and in leading them at an early period to take to the sea. Still, the level ground was sufficiently fertile to form a marked contrast to the rest of the district, and this fact is represented in the mythical genealogy of the early kings, which embodies several geographical features. Thus, while first we find the name of Actus or Actæon, who represents the ȧkrý or sca-coast,

But whatever drawbacks the people of Attica experienced in respect of the soil were more than compensated by the fineness of the climate. In this point they enjoyed a great advantage over their neighbours the Boeotians; and while at the present day travellers speak of the excessive heat in summer and cold in winter which they have experienced in Boeotia, Attica has always been famous for its mildness. In approaching this district from the north, a change of temperature is felt as soon as a person descends from Citharon or Parnes, and the sea breeze, which in modern times is called o éμßárns, or that which sets towards shore, moderates the heat in summer. Both the Attic comedians and Plato speak with enthusiasm of their native climate, and the fineness of the Athenian intellect was attributed to the clearness of the Attic atmosphere. It was in the neighbourhood of Athens itself that the air was thought to be purest. This is what Euripides refers to in the well-known passage where he describes the inhabitants as "ever walking gracefully through the most luminous æther" (Med., 829); and Milton, who is always an admirable exponent of Greek literature, in like manner

says

"Where, on the Egean shore, a city stands,

Built nobly, pure the air, and light the soil,-
Athens, the eye of Greece."

Thus it is hardly hyperbole in Xenophon to say "one
would not err in thinking that this city is placed near the
centre of Greece-nay, of the civilised world,-because, the
farther removed persons are from it, the severer is the cold
or heat they meet with" (Vectigal., i. 6). To the clearness
of the atmosphere must be referred the distinctness with
which distant objects can be discerned, for from the
Acropolis the lines of white marble that streak the sides of
Pentelicus are visible, and also the brilliant colouring
which is so conspicuous in an Athenian sunset. Thus
Dean Stanley speaks of "the flood of fire with which the
marble columns, the mountains, and the sea are all bathed
and penetrated;" "the violet hue which Hymettus assumes
in the evening sky, in contrast to the glowing furnace of
the rock of Lycabettus, and the rosy pyramid of Pentelicus,"
And M. Bursian says-" Amongst the most beautiful
natural scenes that I have beheld I reckon the sight of
Hymettus from Athens at sunset, whilst the entire range,
as soon as the sun begins to sink, quivers with the loveliest
rosy red, which gradually passes through the most varied
gradations into the deepest violet. No one who has not
enjoyed this spectacle can understand the purpureos colles
florentis Hymetti of Ovid." This otherwise perfect climate
is slightly marred by the prevalence of the north wind.
This is expressed on the Horologium of Antonius Cyr-
rhestes, called the Temple or Tower of the Winds, at

Athens, where Boreas is represented as a bearded man of stern aspect, thickly clad, and wearing strong buskins; he blows into a conch shell, which he holds in his hand as a sign of his tempestuous character. This also explains the close connection between him and this country in mythology, especially in the legend of Orithyia, who is the daughter of the Cephisus, thus representing the mists that rise from the streams, and whom he carries off with him and makes his wife. One of their offspring is called Chione, or the Snow Maiden.

When we turn to the vegetation of Attica, the olive first calls for our attention. This tree, we learn from Herodotus (v. 82), was thought at one time to have been found in that country only; and the enthusiastic praises of Sophocles (Ed. Col., 700) teach us that it was the land in which it flourished best. So great was the esteem in which it was held, that in the early legend of the struggle between the gods of sea and land, Poseidon and Athena, for the patronage of the country, the sea-god is represented as having to retire vanquished before the giver of the olive; and at a later period the evidences of this contention were found in an ancient olive tree in the Acropolis, together with three holes in the rock, said to have been made by the trident of Poseidon, and to be connected with a salt well hard by. The fig also found its favourite home in this country, for Demeter was said to have bestowed it as a gift on the Eleusinian Phytalus, i.e., "the gardener." Both Citharon and Parnes must have been wooded in former times; for on the former are laid the picturesque ailvan scenes in the Baccha of Euripides, and it was from the latter that the wood came which caused the neighbour ing deme of Acharna to be famous for its charcoal-the aropaxes Пaprýσio of the Acharnians of Aristophanes (348). It was the thymy slopes of Hymettus, too, from which came the famous Hymettian honey. Among the other products we must notice the marble-both that of Pentelicus, which afforded a material of unrivalled purity and whiteness for building the Athenian temples, and the blue marble of Hymettus-the trabes Hymettia of Horacewhich used to be transported to Rome for the construction of palaces. But the richest of all the sources of wealth in Attica was the silver mines of Laureium, the yield of which was so considerable as to render silver the principal medium of exchange in Greece, so that "a silver piece" (apyúptov) was the Greek equivalent term for money. Hence Eschylus speaks of the Athenians as possessing a "fountain of silver" (Pers., 235), and Aristophanes makes his chorus of birds promise the audience that, if they show him favour, owls from Laureium, i.e., silver pieces with the emblem of Athens, shall never fail them (Av., 1106). In Strabo's time, though the mines had almost ceased to yield, silver was obtained in considerable quantities from the scoriæ; and at the present day a large amount of lead is obtained in the same way, the value of what was exported in 1869 having been £177,000 sterling.

Having thus noticed the general features of the country, let us proceed to examine it somewhat more in detail. It has been already mentioned that the base line is formed by the chain of Citharon and Parnes, running from west to east; and that from this transverse chains run southward, dividing Attica into a succession of plains. The westernmost of these, which is separated from the innermost bay of the Corinthian Gulf, called the Mare Alcyonium, by an offshoot of Citharon, and is bounded on the east by a ridge which ends towards the Saronic Gulf in a striking two-horned peak called Kerata, is the plain of Megara. It is only for geographical purposes that we include this district under Attica, for both the Dorian race of the inhabitants, and its dangerous proximity to Athens, caused it to be at perpetual feud with that city; but its position

as an outpost for the Peloponnesians, together with the fact of its having once been Ionian soil, sufficiently explains the bitter hostility of the Athenians towards the Megarians. The great importance of Megara arose from its commanding all the passes into the Peloponnese. These were three in number: one along the shores of the Corinthian Gulf, which, owing to the nature of the ground, makes a long detour; the other two starting from Megara, and passing, the one by a lofty though gradual route over the ridge of Geraneia, the other along the Saronic Gulf, under the dangerous precipices of the Scironian rocks. The town of Megara, which was built on and between two low hills rising out of the plain rather more than a mile from the sea, had the command of both gulfs by means of its two ports-that of Pega on the Corinthian, and that of Nicaa on the Saronic. The necessities of the case occasionally brought the Megarians and their powerful neighbours together; for the former greatly depended on Athens for their supplies, as we see from their famished state, as described by Aristophanes in the Acharnians (729 seq.), when excluded from the ports and markets of that country.

To the east of the plain of Megara lies that of Eleusis, bounded on the one side by the chain of Kerata, and on the other by that of Egaleos, through a depression in which was the line of the sacred way, where the torchlight processions from Athens used to descend to the coast, the "brightly-gleaming shores" (Aaμwádes åktai) of Sophocles (Ed. Col., 1049). Here a deep bay runs into the land, opposite to which, and separated from it by a strait, which forms a succession of graceful curves, was the rocky island of Salamis, at all times an important possession to the Athenians on account of its proximity to their city. The scene of the battle of Salamis was the narrowest part of this channel, where the island approaches the extremity of Egaleos; and it was on the last declivities of that mountain that

"A king sate on the rocky brow

Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis." The eastern portion of this plain was called the Thriasian plain, and the city of Eleusis was situated in the recesses of the bay. The coast-line of this part, between the sanctuary of Poseidon at the isthmus, which was originally Ionian, and Athens, is the principal scene of the achievements of Theseus, a hero who holds the same relation to the Ionians of Greece proper as Hercules does to the Greeks at large, viz., that of being the great author of improvements in the country. In this instance his feats seem to describe the establishment of a safe means of communication. On the isthmus itself he destroys the monster Sinis, the "ravager," otherwise called Pityocamptes, or the "pine-bender," which names imply that he is the embodiment of a violent wind, though the legend grew up that he fastened his victims to the bent branches of two pines, by the rebound of which they were torn in sunder. His next exploit is near Crommyon, where he destroys a wild sow, called Phæa, or "the dusky," which probably means that he checked a torrent, since violent watercourses are often represented by that animal in Greek mythology. Then follows the struggle with the brigand Sciron, who signifies the dangerous wind, which blows with such violence in this district that at Athens the north-west wind received the name of Sciron from the neighbouring Scironian rocks; the pass, which skirts the sea at the base of the cliffs, is now known by the ill-omened title of Kake Scala, and is still regarded as a perilous transit. Finally, between Eleusis and Athens, Theseus overcomes Procrustes, or "the racker," who apparently represents the dangers of the pass between Eleusis and Athens, now called Daphne; for the ridge of Mount Ægaleos hard by was in ancient

times called Corydallus, and this, we are told by Diodorus | Mesogæa, an elevated undulating plain in the midst of the (iv. 59), was the scene of the contest.

mountains, reaching nearly to Sunium. At the extremity Next in order to the plain of Eleusis came that of of Hymettus, where it projects into the Saronic Gulf, was Athens, which is the most extensive of all, reaching from the promontory of Zoster, or "the Girdle," which was so the foot of Parnes to the sea, and bounded on the west by called because it girdles and protects the neighbouring Egaleos, and on the east by Hymettus. Its most con harbour; but, in consequence of the name, a legend was spicuous feature is the broad line of dark green along its attached to it, to the effect that Latona had loosed her girdle western side, formed by the olive-groves of Colonus and there. From this promontory to Sunium there runs a lower the gardens of the Acaremus, which owe their fertility to line of mountains, and between these and the sea a fertile the waters of the Cephisus, by which they are irrigated. strip of land intervenes, which was called the Paralia. This river is fed by copious sources on the side of Mount Beyond Sunium, on the eastern coast, were two safe ports, Parnes, and thus, unlike the other rivers of Attica, has a that of Thoricus, which is defended by the island of Helene, constant supply of water; but it does not reach the sea, forming a natural breakwater in front of it, and that of nor did it apparently in classical times, having been Prasiæ, now called Porto Raphti, or "the Tailor," from a diverted, then as now, into the neighbouring plantations; statue at the entrance to which the natives have given that for this is what Sophocles means when he speaks of "the name. But it still remains to mention the most famous sleepless fountains of Cephisus, which stray forth from spot of ground in Attica, the little plain of Marathon, which their channels" (Ed. Col., 685 seq.) The position of lay in the north-east corner, encircled on three sides by Colonus itself is marked by two bare knolls of light- Parnes and Pentelicus, while the fourth faces the sea and coloured earth, which caused the poet in the same chorus the opposite coast of Euboea, It was on the mountain to apply the epithet "white" (apyŷra) to that place. On slopes that the Greeks were stationed, while the Persians the opposite side of the plain runs the other river, the Ilissus, with their ships occupied the coast; and on the two sides which rises from a beautiful fountain in Mount Hymettus, the marshes may still be traced by which the movements and skirts the eastern extremity of the city of Athens; but of the invader's host were impeded The mound, which this, notwithstanding its celebrity, is a mere brook, which at once attracts the eye in the centre of the level plain, is stands in pools a great part of the year, and in summer is probably the burial-place of the Athenians who fell in the completely dry. The situation of Athens relatively to the battle. The bay in front is sheltered by Euboea, and is surrounding objects is singularly harmonious; for, while it still more protected from the north by a projecting tongue forms a central point, so as to be the eye of the plain, and of land, called Cynosura. The mountains in the neigh while the al ar-rock of the Acropolis and the hills by which bourhood were the seat of one of the political parties in it is surrounded are conspicuous from every point of view, Attica, the Diacrii or Hyperacrii, who, being poor mounthere is no such exactness in its position us to give for- taineers, and having nothing to lose, were the principal mality, since it is nearer to the sea than to Parnes, and advocates of change; while, on the other hand, the Pedieis, nearer o Hymettus than to Egaleos. The most striking or inhabitants of the plains, being wealthy landholders, summit in the neighbourhood of the city is that of Lyca- formed the strong conservative element, and the Parali, or bettus, now Mount St George, on the north-eastern side; occupants of the sea-coast, representing the mercantile inand the variety is still further increased by the continua- terest, held an intermediate position between the two. tion of the ridge which it forms for some distance north- Finally, there was one district of Attica, that lay without wards through the plain. Three roads lead to Athens its natural boundaries, the territory of Oropus, which profrom the Baotian frontier over the intervening mountain perly belonged to Boeotia, as it was situated to the north barrier-the casternmost over Parnes, from Delium and of Parnes; but on this the Athenians always endeavoured Oropus by Deceleia, which was the usual route of the in- to retain a firm hold, because it facilitated their communivading Lacedæmonians during the Peloponnesian War; the cations with Euboea. The command of that island was of westernmost over Citharon, by the pass of Dryoscephala, the utmost importance to them; for, if Ægina could rightly or the " Oakheads," leading from Thebes by Platea to be called "the eyesore of the Piraeus," Euboea was quite as Eleusis, and so to Athens, which we hear of in connection truly a thorn in the side of Attica; for we learn from Demoswith the battle of Platea, and with the escape of the thenes (De Cor., p. 307) that at one period the pirates that Platæans at the time of the siege of that city in the Pelo- made it their headquarters so infested the neighbouring ponnesian War; the third, midway between the two, by sea as to prevent all navigation. the pass of Phyle, near the summit of which, on a rugged height overlooking the Athenian plain, is the fort occupied by Thrasybulus in the days of the Thirty Tyrants. On the sea-coast to the south-west of Athens rises the hill of Munychia, a mass of rocky ground, forming the acropolis of the town of Piraeus, which was once separated from the mainland; for Strabo (i. 3, § 18) speaks of it as having been formerly an island. On one side of this, towards Hymettus, lay the open roadstead of Phalerum, on the other the harbour of Piraeus, a completely land-locked inlet, safe, deep, and spacious, the approach to which was still further narrowed by moles. The eastern side of the hill was further indented by two small but commodious havens, which were respectively called Zea and Munychia.

The north-eastern boundary of the plain of Athens is formed by the graceful pyramid of Pentelicus, which received its naine from the deme of Pentele at its foot, but was far more commonly known as Brilessus in ancient times. This mountain did not form a continuous chain with Hymettus, for between them intervenes a level space of ground two miles in width, which formed the entrance to the

Of the condition of Attica in medieval and modern times little need be said, for it has followed for the most part the fortunes of Athens. The population, however, has undergone a great change, independently of the large admixture of Slavonic blood that has affected the Greeks of the mainland generally, by the immigration of Albanian colonists, who now occupy a great part of the country. The most important of the classical ruins that remain outside Athens are those of the temple of Athena at Sunium, which form a conspicuous object as they surmount the headland, and gave rise to the name which it bore, until lately, of Cape Colonna; it is in the Doric style, of white marble, and 13 columns of the temple and a pilaster are now standing. At Eleusis the foundations of the propyla of the great temple of Demeter and other buildings have been laid bare by excavation; at Thoricus there are remains of an ancient theatre; and at Rhamnus, northward from Marathon, at a little distance from the sca, are the basements and some of the columns of two temples in the same enclosure, which were dedicated to Nemesis and Themis.

(H. F. T.)

the river is the village of Khairabad, with a fort, also erected by Akbar according to some, or by Nádir Sháh according to others.

by Orleans. Meanwhile, Theodoric and Aëtius, the Roman general, had collected and united their forces, and marching with all speed, arrived in time to raise the siege of Orleans. Attila retreated to a position in the plain of Chalons, and there concentrated his forces for a great engagement. A tremendous battle ensued-one of the most gigantic as well as most important contests recorded in history. The Romans, who formed one wing, were driven back, and although they kept together, and at nightfall retired to the camp of the Visigoths, Aëtius had given up the day as lost. The Visigoths, who were on the other wing, had also been repulsed, and were discouraged by the fall of their leader Theodoric. But the fortune of the day was changed by the impetuous bravery of Thorismund, Theodoric's son, who, burning to avenge his father's fall, led on the infuriated Visigoths, and drove Attila back to his camp. He even penetrated into the fortifications, but was wounded and thrown from his horse, and his followers with difficulty carried him off. Next day, Attila remained in his camp in expectation of an attack, and having thrown all his baggage into a gigantic pile in the centre of the camp to be burned in case of defeat, resolved to sell his life dearly. But no attack was made; for Thorismund was persuaded by Aëtius to march to Toulouse in order to obtain his father's king-county the most learned and able attorneys and apprentices dom. Attila was thus enabled to retire in perfect security. Next year he poured his forces through the defiles of the Alps, and laid waste the whole north of Italy. Rome itself seemed likely to fall before the invader, when his course was arrested by an embassy headed by Pope Leo. Attila at once withdrew from Italy, but the motive which led him to act thus is not known. At the time his retreat was ascribed to a miraculous interposition of Providence, Peter and Paul having appeared in the camp of the Huns along with the embassy. The whole matter is rather obscure; and scarcely more credible is the story told by Jornandes that Attila invaded Gaul a second time and was completely defeated by Thorismund. No other historian mentions this circumstance. In the year 453, Attila died from the bursting of a blood-vessel on the night of his marriage with a beautiful Gothic maiden, called Ildiko, or Hilda. He was buried by his followers with great pomp and lamentation. The vast empire over which he had ruled broke up immediately after his death, no one chief being powerful enough to seize the supremacy. In person Attila is described as having been of true Hunnish type, short, but strongly made, with a large head, flat, widespread nostrils, and small glittering eyes. His presence was majestic and imposing, and he excelled all his followers in military exercises.

ATTOCK, a town and fort of British India, in the Panjab, situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, in 33° 54' N. lat., and 72° 20′ E. long. The place is both of political and commercial importance, as the Indus is here crossed by the military and trade route through the Khaibar Pass into Afghánistán. Alexander the Great, Tamerlane, and Nádir Sháh, are believed to have successively crossed the Indus at or about this spot in their respective invasions of India. The river runs past Attock in a deep rapid channel about 200 yards broad, but is easily crossed in boats or on inflated. skins of oxen. A bridge of boats is maintained for a considerable part of the year, but withdrawn in the summer as soon as the melting of the snows in the northern mountains endangers it. The fort of Attock was built by the Emperor Akbar in 1581, on a low hillock beside the river. The walls are of polished stone, and the whole structure is handsome; but from a military point of view it is of little importance, being commanded by a hill, from which it is divided only by a ravine. The town was formerly a place of importance, but has now fallen into decay. On the opposite side of

ATTORNEY, in English Law, signifies, in its widest sense, any substitute or agent appointed to act in "the turn, stead, or place of another." The term is now commonly confined to a class of qualified agents who undertake the conduct of legal proceedings for their clients. By the common law the actual presence of the parties to a suit was considered indispensable, but the privilege of appearing by attorney was conceded in certain cases by special dispensation, until the statute of Merton and subsequent enactments made it competent for both parties in all judicial proceedings to appear by attorney. Solicitors appear to have been at first distinguished from attorneys, as not having the attorney's power to bind their principals, but latterly the distinction has been between attorneys as the agents formally appointed in actions at law, and solicitors who take care of proceedings in Parliament, Chancery, Privy Council, &c. In practice, however, and in ordinary language, the terms are synonymous. Regulations regarding the qualification of attorneys are found as far back as the 20 Edward I., which required the judges to select in each to do service in the courts. By the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 73, and other statutes, the qualifications necessary for admission on the rolls of attorneys and solicitors are :—1st, The due execution of a proper contract in writing with some practising attorney or solicitor for the term of five years, or of three years if the clerk be a graduate of the universi ties of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, London, or Durham, or of the Queen's University, Ireland, or if he have been a member of the bar, a writer to the signet, a solicitor before the supreme courts in Scotland, or for ten years bona fide managing clerk to an attorney; 2d, The payment of the stamp duty on such contract, amounting to £80; 3d, The registry or enrolment of the contract within six calendar months; 4th, Actual service for the prescribed period in the proper business of an attorney and solicitor; but one year may be served with the London agent, and, where the service is for five years, another year with a barrister or certificated special pleader; 5th, Due notices of the application to be admitted; 6th, Fitness and capacity ascertained upon examination, and certified by the examiners; 7th, Taking the prescribed oaths, and being admitted and enrolled; 8th, The certificate of the registrar of attorneys that he is duly enrolled, and the stamped certificate of the annual payment of the duty. Attorneys duly admitted in any of the superior courts have a right to be admitted and to practise in any of the courts in the kingdom, and this right may be enforced by mandamus. They may act as advocates in certain of the inferior courts. Conveyancing, formerly considered the exclusive business of the bar, is now often performed by attorney's. Barristers are understood to require the intervention of an attorney in all cases that come before them professionally, although in criminal cases the prisoner not unfrequently engages a counsel directly by giving him a fee in open court. The relation of attorney and client disqualifies the former from dealing with his client on his own behalf, while it gives him a lien, on professional services, over the deeds, &c., of the client in his possession. An attorney may be struck off the rolls for professional or other misconduct, on application by counsel at the instance of an injured party, or, as the case generally is, of the Incorporated Law Society as representing the profession.

A letter or power of Attorney is an authority under hand and seal, empowering the person named therein to do some act on behalf of the principal, which otherwise could only be done by the principal himself. It expires with death of the