Plan of Berlin.

than 1814, the close of the great conflict with Napoleon I. |
The Exchange, finished in 1863, at a cost of £180,000
sterling; the Synagogue, a proud building in Oriental style,
finished in 1866, at a cost of £107,000; and the Rath-
haus, finished in 1869, at a cost of £500,000 sterling, in-
cluding the land on which it stands, are the most recent
of its great buildings. The New National Gallery is nearly
completed, and the Imperial Bank is being rebuilt. It is
probable that no city in the world can show so large a
number of fine structures so closely clustered together.
Up to a very recent date Berlin was a walled city.
Those of its nineteen gates which still remain have only
an historical or architectural interest. The principal of
these is the Brandenburg Gate, an imitation of the Propy-
læa at Athens. It is 201 feet broad and nearly 65 feet
high. It is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44
feet in height, and surmounted by a car of victory, which,
taken by Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by
the Prussians in 1814. It has recently been enlarged by
two lateral colonnades, each supported by 16 columns.

Bois-Reymond, tell of the French refugees who found a home here in the cold north when expelled from their own land. Daniel, in his Geography, vol. iv. p. 155, says that there was a time when every tenth man in the city was a Frenchman. Flemish and Bohemian elements, to say nothing of the banished Salzburgers, were introduced in a similar manner. Add to these the 36,013 Jews now resident in the city, and the picture of the commingled races which make up its population is pretty complete.

The 826,341 inhabitants of the city were found at the census of 1871 to be living in 14,478 dwelling-houses, and to consist of 178,159 households. These numbers show that the luxury of a single house for a single family is rare, and this holds good also of the wealthier classes of the people. These numbers fall far short of the present (1875) number of houses and of households, as will be seen from the fact that the value of the household property of the city in 1874 exceeded that of 1871 by £18,000,000 sterling, of which the greatest part falls to newly-built houses or houses enlarged. In 1871 the average number The streets, about 520 in number, are, with the excep- of persons comprised in a household was found to be 4.6, tion of the districts in the most ancient part of the city, the number of households dwelling in a house 12·3, and long, strait, and wide, lined with high houses, for the old the number of persons dwelling in a house 57.1. These typical Berlin house, with its ground floor and first floor, numbers throw light on the moral and social life of the is rapidly disappearing. The Unter den Linden is 3287 city, and compared with the past, show the change in the feet long by 160 broad. The new boulevard, the Königgrätz domestic habits of the people. In 1540 the average erstrasse, is longer still, though not so wide. The Fried- number of inmates in a house was 6, in 1740 it was 17, richstrasse and the Oranienstrasse exceed 2 English miles in 1867 it had risen to 32, and in 1871 to 57. Between in length. The city has about 60 squares. It has 25 the years 1864 and 1871 the one-storied houses of the city theatres and 14 large halls for regular entertainments. It decreased 8 per cent., the two and three-storied houses 4 has an aquarium, zoological garden, and a floral institution, per cent., while the number of four-storied houses increased with park, flower, and palm houses. It has several hospi-11 per cent., and the five-storied and higher houses 50 per tals, of which the largest is the Charité, with accommo- cent. With the increase of high houses, the underground dation for 1500 patients. The Bethany, Elizabeth, and cellar dwellings, which form so striking a feature in the Lazarus hospitals are attached to establishments of Pro- house architecture of the city, increase in a like proportion, testant deaconesses. The St Hedwig's hospital is under and these and the attics are the dwellings of the poor. In the care of Roman Catholic sisters. The Augusta hospital, 1867 there were 14,292 such cellar dwellings, in 1871 they under the immediate patronage and control of the empress, had increased to 19,208. Taking the average of 1867is in the hands of lady nurses, who nurse the sick without 4 inmates to a cellar dwelling-we get 76,832 persons assuming the garb and character of a religious sisterhood. living under ground. In 1871 there were 4565 dwellings The people's parks are the Humboldt's Hain, the Friedrich's which contained no room which could be heated. This Hain, the Hasenheide, and, above all, the Thiergarten, a class of dwelling Lad doubled between the two census wood covering 820 Prussian acres of ground, and reaching years of 1867 and 1871. Taking 3 inmates (the ascer up to the Brandenburg Gate. tained average of 1867) to such a dwelling, we have 13,695 persons who pass the winter in unheated dwellings, in a climate where the cold not unfrequently sinks below the zero of Fahrenheit. Of the remaining dwellings of the city, 95,423 had only one room which could be heated. This number, at 4 persons to a dwelling, give us an insight into the domestic life of 381,692 of the inhabitants of the city; that is, with the 13,695 persons mentioned above, of nearly half the population. Such dwellings engender no feeling of home, and the habits of the people are in a certain sense nomadic. In 1872, 74,568 changes of dwelling took place, involving an expense at a very moderate calculation of £158,900. In the poorer townships there were 70 removals to every 100 dwellings !

As has been seen, the population has trebled itself within the last 34 years, naturally not so much by the excess of births over deaths, as by an unbroken current of immigration. In 1873 the births were 35,954, the deaths 26,427, leaving an excess of 8527 births. But the increase in the population of the city in the same year was 50,184, leaving 41,657 as the increase through the influx from without. It will thus be seen at a glance that only a minority of the population are native Berliners. In the census of 1867 it was found that, taking the population above 20 years of age, only one-third were natives of the city. The immigration is almost exclusively from the Prussian provinces, and among these principally from Brandenburg and from the eastern and north-eastern provinces. In 1871 it was The rate of mortality is high. In 1873, a favourable found that out of every 10,000 inhabitants, 9725 were Prus- year, it was 28 to every 1000 of the population. Taking sian subjects, 165 were from other German states, 55 from the deaths as a whole, 58 per cent. were of children under foreign lands, and 47 were of a nationality not ascertained. 10 years of age. The rate of mortality is on the increase. The foreign element almost vanishes, and the German Professor Virchow, in a report to the municipal authorities, element is represented principally by the north, so that in stated that, dividing the last 15 years into periods of 5 blood and manners Berlin remains essentially a north-years each, the general mortality in each of the three periods eastern German city, i.e., a city in which German, Wend, and Polish blood flows commingled in the veins of the citizens. In past times Berlin received a strong infusion of foreign blood, the influence of which is perceptible to the present day in its intellectual and social life. Such names as Savigny, Lancizolle, De la Croix, De le Coq, Du

was as 5, 7, 9. The mortality of children under 1 year in the same three periods was as 5, 7, 11; that is, it had more than doubled. In the year 1872, out of 27,800 deaths, 11,136 were of children under 1 year.

The city is well supplied with water by works constructed by an English company, which have now become

English and German companies | which is, of course, not a municipal, but a national institu-
tion. It is, with the exception of Bonn, the youngest of
the Prussian universities, but the first of them all in in-
fluence and reputation. It was founded in 1810. Prussia
had lost her celebrated university of Halle, when that city
was included by Napoleon in his newly created "kingdom
of Westphalia." It was as a weapon of war, as well as a
nursery of learning, that Frederick William III., and the
great men whose names are identified with its origin,
called it into existence, for it was felt that knowledge and
religion are the true strength and defence of nations
William v. Humboldt was at that time at the head
of the educational department of the kingdom, and men
like Fichte and Schleiermacher worked the popular mind.
It was opened on the 15th of October 1810. Its first
rector was Schmalz; its first deans of faculty, Schleier-
macher, Biener, Hufeland, and Fichte. Within the first
ten years of its existence it counted among its professors
such names as De Wette, Neander, Marheineke; Savigny,
Eichhorn; Böckh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Wolff, Niebuhr,
and Buttmann. Later followed such names as Hengsten-
berg and Nitzsch; Homeyer, Bethman-Hollweg, Puchta,
Stahl, and Heffter; Schelling, Trendelenburg, Bopp, the
brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Ritter; and at the present
time it can boast of such names as Twesten and Dorner;
Gneist and Hinschius; Langenbeck, Bardeleben, Virchow,
and Du Bois-Reymond; von Ranke, Mommsen, Curtius,
Lepsius, Hoffman the chemist, and Kiepert the geographer.
Taking ordinary, honorary, and extraordinary professors,
licensed lecturers (privatdocenten), and readers together,
its present professorial strength consists of 15 teachers in
the faculty of theology, 14 in the faculty of law, 63 in the
faculty of medicine, and 96 in the faculty of philosophy-
together, 188. The number of matriculated and un-
matriculated attendants on the various lectures averages
3000 in the summer term, and 3500 in the winter. Dur-
ing the last two or three years, however, the number has
been steadily decreasing. Berlin, in point of numbers, still
stands at the head of the Prussian universities, but no longer
of the German universities, being now outstripped by Leipsic.

the property of the city.
supply the city with gas. A system of underground
drainage is at present in process of construction. Internal
communication is kept up by means of tramways, omni-
buses, and cabs. In 1873 there were 54 tram-carriages, 185
omnibuses, and 4424 cabs licensed, served by 10,060 horses.
Berlin is governed by the president of police, by the
municipal authorities, and in military matters by the
governor and commandant of the city. The police presi-
dent stands under the minister of the interior, and has
the control of all that stands related to the maintenance of
public order. The municipal body consists of a burgomaster-
in-chief, a burgomaster, a body of town councillors (Stadt-
räthe), and a body of town deputies (Stadtverordnete).
For municipal purposes the city is divided into 16 town-
ships and 210 districts. For police purposes the work is
divided into six departments, and an extra department for
the fire brigade and street cleaning, and the town into six
larger and fifty smaller districts: At the head of each
larger district is a police captain, at the head of each
smaller district a police lieutenant.

With the exception of a few of the higher schools, which are under the direct supervision of the provincial authorities, the Berlin schools are either under the direct supervision of the municipal body or of its committee for school purposes. The schools, public and private, are divided into higher, middle, and elementary. In 1872 there were 24 higher public schools. Of these, 10 were gymnasia or schools for the highest branches of a learned education. In these schools there were 138 classes and 5073 pupils, of whom 2142 were over, and 2931 under, 14 years of age. The second class of high schools, the so-called Realschulen, give instruction in Latin, but otherwise devote almost exclusive attention to the departments of mathematics, science, history, modern languages, and the requirements of the higher stages of general or commercial life. Of this class of school there were also 10, with 143 classes, 5770 pupils, of whom 1931 were over, and 3839 under, 14 years of age. The remaining 4 high schools were for girls, with 54 classes, 2522 pupils, of whom 529 were over, and 1993 under, 14 years of age. In addition to these public schools there were 7 higher schools for boys, with 55 classes and 2098 pupils, and 36 higher schools for girls, with 243 classes and 6629 pupils.

Within the last five years (1875) no new school of this class has been established, but several are in process of erection. Between 1869 and 1873 the city voted about £328,747 sterling for the purchase of sites, and for enlarging and rebuilding schools of this class; and the sum still required for schools of this class, up to 1877, is £352,500 sterling. The total number of schools of all sorts, higher, middle, and elementary, public and private, in 1872, was 232, with 1072 boys' classes, 1009 girls' classes, and 4 mixed classestogether, 2085; attended by 50,316 boys, 44,959 girls together, 95,275 children, of whom 7309, or 7-35 per cent., were over 14 years of age. The extent to which the schools are used under the law of compulsory education is very difficult to determine. In 1867 there were 103,383 children of the school age, but only 71,814, or 69.5 per cent., were in the schools. Dr Schwabe, by a criticism of these numbers, reduces the percentage of nonattendance to 13 per cent., and maintains that even these are not all to be regarded as absolutely without instruction. In 1871 it was found that out of every 10,000 persons of 70 years of age and upwards, there were 1529 who could neither read nor write; and that out of a like number from 60 to 70, there were 860; 50 to 60, 446; 40 to 50, 234; 30 to 40, 158; 25 to 30, 155; 20 to 25, 71; 15 to 20, 58; and from 10 to 15, 48.

The scholastic life of Berlin culminates in its university,

In addition to its schools and its university, Berlin is rich in institutions for the promotion of learning, science, and the arts. It has a Royal Academy of Sciences, with 46 members, 23 in the class of physics and mathematics, and 23 in the class of philosophy and history. It was founded on the 11th of June 1700, and the name of Leibnitz is associated with its foundation. It was raised to the rank of a Royal Academy by Frederick the Great in 1743. Berlin has also a Royal Academy of Arts, consisting of 39 ordinary members (1875), under the immediate protection of the king, and governed by a director and a senate, composed of 15 members in the departments of painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and 4 members in the section for music. Berlin has also its academy for vocal music, and its royal high school for music in all branches, theoretical and applied, and learned bodies and associations of the most various kinds. It has 9 public libraries, at the head of which stands the royal library, with 710,000 volumes and 15,000 manuscripts. In addition to these, there are 15 people's libraries established in various parts of the city

Berlin possesses eight public museums, in addition to the Royal Museums and the National Gallery. The Royal Museums are the Old and the New Museums. The former, which stands on the north-east side of the Lustgarten, facing the castle, is the most imposing building in Berlin. It was built in the reign of Frederick William III., from designs by Schinkel. Its portico, supported by 18 colossal Ionic columns, is reached by a wide flight of steps. The museum covers 47,000 square feet of ground, and is 276

|

Japan are also increasing. Berlin is growing in importance | works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber, and other German

as a money market and centre of industrial undertakings. The Berlin Cassenverein, through which the banking houses transact their business, passed £1,351,988,967 sterling through its books in 1872, as compared with £644,431,255 sterling in 1871. In 1872, 23 new banking establishments were enrolled in the trade register, with a capital of £7,565,000 sterling; and in the same year 144 new joint-stock companies were enrolled, representing a capital of £18,000,000 sterling. Since that time the tide of enterprise has ebbed, but the majority of these undertakings continue to exist.

In the progress of its growth Berlin has lost much of its original character.

The numerical relations of class

to class have been greatly modified. New political institutions have sprung into existence, of which the Berlin of the early years of Frederick William IV. had not a trace. It has become the seat of a parliament of the realm, and of a parliament of the empire. Manufacture and trade have come to absorb 70 per cent. of the entire population. But these have also changed their character; old branches which constituted a marked feature of its commercial and manufacturing activity have almost suddenly died out, while new branches have with equal rapidity more than supplied their place. While the commercial and manufacturing element has thus increased, other elements have undergone a relative decline. The learned professions and the civil service numbered in 1867 7.9 per cent. of the population. In 1871 the proportion had sunk to 6·11, and since then the percentage has gone on decreasing. In this altered state of affairs Berlin will have to cherish and nurture the scientific, educational, ethical, and religious elements in her life with double care, not only to keep up her old reputation abroad, but also for the purpose of preventing the degeneration of her people at home.

masters. About this period Berlioz saw for the first time on the stage the talented Irish actress Miss Smithson, who was then charming Paris by her impersonations_of Ophelia, Juliet, and other Shakespearean characters. The young enthusiastic composer became deeply enamoured of her at first sight, and tried, for a long time in vain, to gain the responsive love or even the attention of his idol To an incident of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz's first symphonic work, Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste, owes its origin. It describes the dreams of an artist who, under the influence of opium, imagines that he has killed his mistress, and in his vision witnesses his own execution. It is replete with the spirit of contemporary French romanticism and of self-destructive Byronic despair. A written programme is added to each of the five movements to expound the imaginative material on which the music is founded. By the advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the Conservatoire, where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata Sardanapalus (1830) gained him the first prize for foreign travel, in spite of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During a stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to King Lear, and Le Retour à la Vie, a sort of symphony, with intervening poetical declamation between the single movements, called by the composer a melologue, and written in continuation of the Episode de la Vie d'un Artiste, along with which work it was performed at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that occasion spoke to Berlioz the memorable words: "Vous commencer par où les autres ont fini." Miss Smithson, who also was present on the occasion, soon afterwards consented to become the wife of her ardent lover. The artistic success achieved on that occasion did not prove to be of a lasting kind. Berlioz's music was too far remote from the curSources of information :-Von Klöden, Handbuch der rent of popular taste to be much admired beyond a small Länder- und Staatenkunde von Europa; Daniel, Handbuch circle of esoteric worshippers. It is true that his name der Geographie, vol. iv.; Fidicin, Historisch-Diplomatische became known as that of a gifted though eccentric comBeiträge zur Geschichte der Stadt Berlin, 5 vols.; Köpke, poser; he also received in the course of time his due share Die Gründung der Fred, Wilhelm Universitat zu Berlin; of the distinctions generally awarded to artistic merit, such Wiese, Das Höhere Schulwesen in Preussen, 3 vols. Das as the ribbon of the Legion of Honour and the memberStatistische Jahrbuch von Berlin, 1867 to 1874. Dr H. ship of the Institute. But these distinctions he owed, Schwabe, Resultate der Volkszählung und Volksbeschreibung perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his compositions vom 1ten December 1871, Berlin, Simion. (G. P. D.) than to his influential position as the musical critic of the BERLIOZ, HECTOR, by far the most original composer Journal des Débats (a position which he never used or of modern France, was born in 1803 at Côte-Saint-André, a abused to push his own works), and to his successes abroad. small town near Grenoble, in the department of Isère. His In 1842 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany, where father was a physician of repute, and by his desire our he was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of composer for some time devoted himself to the study of the the younger generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst same profession. At the same time he had music lessons, them. The latter paved the way for the French composer's and, in secret, perused numerous theoretical works on coun- success, by a comprehensive analysis of the Episode in terpoint and harmony, with little profit it seems, till the his musical journal, the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. Berlioz hearing and subsequent careful analysis of one of Haydn's gave successful concerts at Leipsic and other German quartets opened a new vista to his unguided aspirations. cities, and repeated his visit on various later occasions-in A similar work written by Berlioz in imitation of Haydn's 1852, by invitation of Liszt, to conduct his opera, Benmasterpiece was favourably received by his friends. From venuto Cellini (hissed off the stage in Paris), at Weimar; Paris, where he had been sent to complete his medical and in 1855 to produce his oratorio-trilogy, L'Enfance du studies, he at last made known to his father the unalter- Christ, in the same city. This latter work had been preable decision of devoting himself entirely to art, the answer viously performed at Paris, where Berlioz mystified the to which confession was the withdrawal of all further critics by pretending to have found one part of it, the pecuniary assistance In order to support life Berlioz had "Flight into Egypt," amongst the manuscript scores of a to accept the humble engagement of a singer in the chorus composer of the 17th century, Pierre Ducré by name of the Gymnase theatre. Soon, however, he became recon- Berlioz also made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St ciled to his father and entered the Conservatoire, where he Petersburg (1867), where his works were received with studied composition under Reicha and Lesueur. His first great enthusiasm. He died in Paris, March 9, 1869. important composition was an opera called Les FrancsJuges, of which, however, only the overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the Conservatoire, disgusted, it is said, at the dry pedantry of the professors, and began a course of autodidactic education, founded chiefly on the

Berlioz has justly been described as the French representative of musical Romanticism, and his works are in this respect closely connected with the contemporary movement in literature known by that name. The affinity between him and Victor Hugo, for instance, is undeniable, and must be looked for deeper than in the fantastic eccentricities and breaches of the established form common