wooded country. Its width increases from 40 or 60 feet | W. of Lake Iseo there are numerous mineral wells, the near Bobruisk to 100 feet at the mouth of the Svesloch, most important of which are those of Trescoro. Marble is one of its western tributaries. As a navigable river, and abundant in the mountains, and there are valuable iron forming a portion of the great canal system which unites mines. At an early period the wealth of the capital appears the Black Sea with the Baltic, it is of great importance for to have been increased by the working of copper mines in the commerce of the country, but unfortunately it is sub- the district. (See Finazzi, Sulle antiche miniere di Berject to severe floods. The principal ports along its course gamo, Milan, 1860.) The vine and flax are largely grown, are Boresoff, Berezino, Yakshetzee, Bobruisk, and Parichi. and the culture of the silk-worm is extensively carried on. In history the river has been rendered famous by the cross- The people speak a rough dialect, and are liable to be ing of the army of Napoleon in 1812. See Stucken- laughed at by the other Italians. The two stock characters berg's Hydrographie, iii., and Canäle; Güldenstadt's of popular Italian comedy, Harlequin or Truffaldino and the sly Brighella, were both at one time represented as natives of the Bergamo district. Reise. BEREZOFF, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of a circle in Tobolsk, 700 miles N. of that city, situated on three hills on the left bank of the Sosna, 13 miles above its mouth, and on the Bogul, a tributary of the Sosna, in 63° 55′ N. lat. and 64° 7′ E. long., at a height of 297 feet above the sea-level Berezoff was founded in 1593 for the collection of taxes near the Ostyak settlement of Samgût-Bozh, which means in Russian Berezovi-Gorod, or Birch-town. Berezoff was more than once exposed to destructive conflagrations, as, for example, in 1719. In the second quarter of the 18th century Berezoff was appointed a place of banishment for certain important royal families. In 1727 Prince Menschikoff was sent thither with his sons and two daughters, of whom the eldest, Mary, was the first bride of Peter II.; and in 1730 he was followed by Prince Ivan Dolgoruki, with his wife, father, mother, three brothers and three sisters, of whom Catherine was the second bride of Peter IL. In 1742 General Osterman was sent to Berezoff with his wife, and died there in 1747. In 1782 the town was raised to the rank of chief town of a district of the Tobolsk government. In 1808 it was again burned down. In 1860 it had two stone churches, a cathedral called the Resurrection of the Lord, near which lie buried Mary Menschikoff and some of the Dolgorukis, and the church of Our Lady's Conception, built on the site of the Menschikoff building. There are in the town a departmental school, a lazaretto, and a stranger's hospital. The trade, which is of considerable importance, consists of furs, mammoth bones, dried and salted fish, &c. There is a yearly market, in which the transactions amount to £9000. Population in 1860, 1462. BERG (Ducatus Montensis), a former ducny of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine, bounded on the N. by the duchy of Cleves, E. by the countship of Mark and duchy of Westphalia, and on the S. and W. by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about 1188 square miles. The district was raised in 1108 to the rank of a countship, but did not become a duchy till the 14th century, after it had passed into the possession of the Jülich family. On the extinction of this house in 1609, Austria laid claim to the duchy as an imperial fief; but, in keeping with the wishes of the inhabitants, it was administered conjointly by the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg and the Elector Palatine till 1624, when by the Düsseldorf treaty the last of the three obtained the sole authority. In 1806 it was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the duchy of Cleves and other possessions, on Murat, who bore the title of grand duke of Berg; and after Murat's elevation to the throne of Naples, it was transferred to Louis, the son of the king of Holland. By the Congress of Vienna in 1815 it was made over to Prussia, and now forms a flourishing part of her territory. BERGAMA, a town of Asia Minor, with 2500 inhabitants. See PERGAMUS. BERGAMO, a northern province of Italy, bounded on the N. by Sondrio, E. by Tyrol and Brescia, S. by Cremona, and W. by Milan and Como. The northern portion is mountainous and well wooded, while the southern belongs to the alluvial plain of Lombardy. To the N. and BERGAMO, the capital of the above province, is situated between the Brembo and Serio, two tributaries of the Adda, 39 miles N.E. of Milan, on the railway that runs from Venice to the Lake of Como. It consists of a new and an old town, the latter known as the Città, or city, being built on a hill, while the former, or Borgo S. Leonardo, occupies the level ground below. On the eastern side there are also two important suburbs, S. Caterina and Palazzo. Bergamo is the seat of a bishop and a prefect, and possesses a school of art known as the Accademia Carrara, a museum, a lyceum, a library contained in the Palazzo Vecchio or Broletto, a musical institute, two theatres, and various scientific societies. There are also a lunatic asylum, a hospital, and other charitable institutions. Among its numerous churches may be mentioned S. Maria Maggiore, which dates from 1173, and the neighbouring Colleoni chapel, the old Arian church of San Alessandro della Croce, S. Bartolommeo, and S. Grata. The principal objects of industry in the city are silk, cotton, and woollen goods, iron-wares, waxcloth and wax candles, and playing cards. A large fair, called the Fiera di S. Alessandro, is annually held in the new town. It dates from the 10th century, and is of great importance, especially for the silk trade. Bergamo, or Bergomum, was a municipal town during the Roman empire, and, after being destroyed by Attila, became one of the most flourishing cities of the Lombard kings, who made it the capital of a duchy. In the 15th century it was appropriated and fortified by the Venetians. In 1509 it was occupied by Louis XII. of France, who retained it for seven years, and then restored it to Venice. In 1796 the French again made themselves masters of the city, and constituted it the capital of their department of Serio. Bergamo was the birthplace of Tiraboschi, Rubini, and Donizetti. Population, 37,363. BERGAMOT, OIL OF, an essential oil obtained from the rind of the fruit of a species of Citrus, regarded by Risso as C. bergamia, but not generally believed to constitute a distinct species. The bergamot is a small tree with leaves and flowers like the bitter orange, and a round fruit nearly 3 inches in diameter, with a thin lemon-yellow smooth rind. The tree is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Reggio, in Calabria, whence the entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. The oil is contained in small vesicles in the rind, from which it can be expressed by simple pressure in the hand. An old method of obtaining the oil, now almost superseded, is by skinning the fruit, and pressing the outside of the rind against a sponge. The rind being turned over so that the outside becomes concave, the vesicles are easily ruptured by hand pressure against the sponge, which absorbs the oil as it escapes. The oil is now obtained by placing several fruits in a saucer-shaped apparatus, the surface of which is cut into radiating sharp-edged grooves. Against the sharp edges of this dish the fruits are rapidly revolved by means of a heavy cover placed above it, which is moved by a cog wheel. The oil vessels are ruptured by pressure against the knife edges, and the oil which exudes falls through small perforations in the bottom into a vessel placed underneath. It is allowed to rest till a greasy sub-| stance-bergamot camphor-deposits, after which it is bottled for use. Bergamot oil is a limpid greenish-yellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0.869, of a powerful but plea sant citrine odour and an aromatic bitterish taste. It consists of a mixture of two essential oils, the most volatile of which is a pure hydrocarbon isomeric with oil of turpentine; the other, containing oxygen, being regarded as a hydrate of lemon oil. The chief use of bergamot oil is in perfumery and as a flavouring material in cookery. BERGEN, a city and seaport on the west coast of Norway, capital of the province of South Bergen, in 5°29′E. long. and 60° 23′ N. lat. It is situated on a rocky promontory at the head of a deep bay called the Vaag, has a fine harbour with two good entrances, and is surrounded by hills, some of which attain the height of 2000 feet. Towards the sea it is defended by the ancient fortress of Bergenhuus, the citadels of Fredericksberg and Sverresberg, and some lesser works. The appearance of the town, which rises in the form of an amphitheatre and is generally well built, is decidedly picturesque, with its wooden houses painted of various colours. It contains a cathedral, several churches, of which the oldest, St Mary's, dates from the 12th century, hospitals, a lazaretto, a national museum, a diocesan college, a naval academy, a school of design, public libraries, various charitable institutions, and a theatre. It is the seat of a bishopric, and possesses a tribunal of secondary jurisdiction and one of the three public treasuries of Norway. Bergen has a considerable export trade, which consists of stockfish, lobsters, fish-roes, herrings, whale oil, horns, skins, rock moss, and timber, and is chiefly carried on with the northern countries of Europe. In 1867 the number of steamships that entered the port was 164, with a tonnage of 28,454. The imports of that year amounted to £92,600, and the exports to £344,000. Bergen was founded in the 11th century by Olaf the Peaceful, king of Norway. In 1445 the Hanseatic League established a factory in the city, and continued to have almost the sole control of the trade till 1558, when it was expelled by the Norwegians, who found its presence oppressive. There is still a kind of German colony in the place, which keeps up the Hanseatic tradition, and the old German church, hospital, and "factory" or contor are still extant, the latter furnishing excellent warehouse accommodation. A large part of the town was burnt down in 1855, and has since been rebuilt in a more regular and open manner. It is the second largest town in Norway. Population (1870), 30,252. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a town of Holland, in the province of North Brabant, situated on both sides of the River Zoom, near its confluence with the East Scheldt, in 51° 29' N. lat. and 4° 17′ E. long. It is about 15 miles N. of Antwerp, and 22 W.S.W. of Breda. The houses are well built, the market-places and squares handsome and spacious. It possesses a port and an arsenal, and contains a townhouse, a Latin school, and an academy of design and architecture. The tower of the old castle is remarkable for an increase of its breadth from the bottom upwards, and for its liability to be rocked when struck by a strong wind. There are numerous tile-works and potteries of fine ware; and a considerable trade is carried on in anchovies caught in the Scheldt. In the 18th century Bergen-op-Zoom became the seat of Count Gerhard of Wesemael, who surrounded it with walls. In 1533 it was erected by Charles V. of Germany into a marquisate, which was successively held by the families of Berghes, Merode, Witthem. B'Heerenbergh, Hohenzollern, Tour d'Auvergne, and Sulzbach, and thus passed to the house of Bavaria, which, however, in 1801 abdicated its rights in favour of the Dutch republic. In 1576 the town joined the United Netherlands, and was shortly afterwards fortified. In 1688 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the duke of Parma (see | Motley's United Netherlands, chap. xx.), and in 1605 it was unddenly attacked by Du Terail (Rid. chap. xliv.) In 1622 it defied enterprise after a siego of ten weeks and the loss of 1200 men. Its the utmost attempts of Spinola, who was forced to abandon the fortifications were greatly strengthened in 1688 by Cooehoorn, who, it was believed, had almost rendered it impregnable; and in 1725 they were further extended. In 1747, however, the town was taken it was again in 1795 taken by Pichegru. The English, under Sir by the French general Lowendal. Restored at the end of the war, Thomas Graham, afterwards Lord Lynedoch, in March 1814 made an attempt to take it by a coup de main, but were driven back with great loss by the French, who, however, surrendered the place by the treaty of peace in the following May. BERGERAC, the chief town of an arrondissernent in the department of Dordogne, in France, situated in a fertile plain, 30 miles S.S. W. of Périgueux, on both banks of the Dordogne, which is here crossed by a fine bridge of five arches and rendered navigable by a large dam. The town is rather poorly built, and, in spite of its age, contains no monuments of antiquarian interest. It is, however, a place of great industrial activity, has a communal college, tribunals of primary jurisdiction and commerce, and a public library; and manufactures paper, iron and copper wares, hats, hosiery, and leather. The wines of the neighbourhood are in good repute, and form an important article in the trade of the town, which is principally carried on with Bordeaux and Libourne. Bergerac owes its origin to the abbey of St Martin, which was founded in 1080, and during the English invasions it played an important part as a fortress. In the 16th century it was a very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the religious wars. Its fortifications and citadel were de molished by Louis XIII. in 1621, and it was injuriously affected by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Popu lation in 1872, 8679. BERGMANN, TORBERN OLOF, Swedish chemist and naturalist, was born at Catherinberg, West Gothland, in 1735. At the age of seventeen he entered the University of Upsala, and distinguished himself by extraordinary assiduity in study, directing his attention more particularly to the natural sciences. During a residence at home rendered necessary by his weak health, he employed himself in collecting specimens of insects and plants, which he forwarded to Linnæus, who was much pleased with them. In 1756 he gained great reputation by his memoir on the Coccus aquaticus, which, contrary to the opinion of Linnæus, he proved to be nothing but the ovum of a certain species of leech. Some years later he was made professor of physics at Upsala, and published numerous scientific memoirs. In 1767 the chair of chemistry and mineralogy having become vacant through the resignation of Wallerius, Bergmann resolved to become a candidate. He had not hitherto devoted special attention to chemistry, but in a very short period by incredible application he produced as evidence et his fitness for the post a paper on the composition of alum, which is still regarded as a masterpiece. He was appointed to the chair, which he held till his death in 1784. In 1776 he had declined an offer from the king of Prussia inviting him to settle in Berlin. Bergmann was an unusually acute and sagacious analytical chemist, and made extensive and constant use of the laboratory. He described very carefully the properties of carbonic acid gas, and gave a valuable analysis of mineral waters. His researches in mineralogy, to which he applied his geometrical knowledge, were even more important, and led the way to Hauy's discovery and classification. The theory of elective or chemical affinities, which he worked out very fully, has had great influence in the history of chemistry. A collection of Bergmann's papers was published from 1779 to 1783, Opuscula Physica et Chemica, 6 vols. They have been translated into French, German, and English. BERKELEY, & market-town in the county of Gloucester, | against traditional scholasticism in physics and in metanear the River Severn, on the Midland Railway. It is physics." pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich pastoral vale to which it gives name, and which is celebrated for its dairies, producing the famous cheese known as "double Gloucester." The town has a handsome church, a grammar school, a town-hall, a market-house, and some trade in coal, timber, malt, and cheese. Berkeley was the birthplace of the celebrated Dr Jenner, whose remains are interred in the church. Berkeley castle, on an eminence S.E. of the town, was built in the reign of Henry I. out of the ruins of a nunnery which had been in existence some time before the Conquest. It suffered considerably during the civil wars of the 17th century, but is still one of the noblest baronial castles existing in England. It is noted as the scene of the barbarous murder of Edward II. Since the time of Henry II. it has been in the hands of the Berkeley family. Population of the parish in 1871, 4607,-about a fourth of the number being in the town. BERKELEY, GEORGE, bishop of Cloyne, one of the most subtle and original English metaphysicians, was born on the 12th March 1685, at Dysert castle, on the banks of the Nore, about two miles below Thomastown, Ireland. Not much is known of his family, who seem to have been connected with the noble English house of the same name. His father, William Berkeley, was an officer of customs, and appears to have had at one time the rank of captain in the army. We know next to nothing of the mental character of either him or his wife. George, their eldest son, was entered in 1696 at the famous Kilkenny school, of which he was not the only pupil afterwards distinguished. He was remarkably well advanced in studies for his years, and in 1700 was qualified to matriculate at Trinity College, Dublin. There, for the first time, we begin to have a fair knowledge of the circumstances in which he was placed, and of the peculiar mental qualities with which he was endowed. From his own account, and from the few notices of contemporaries, we can gather that his was a mind of peculiar subtilty, keen to probe to the very foundation any fact presented to it, and resolutely determined to rest satisfied with no doctrine which had only the evidence of authority or custom, and was not capable of being realized in consciousness. This turn of mind naturally led him somewhat off the beaten track of university studies; he was not understood by his college companions, and began to be looked upon as either the greatest dunce or the greatest genius in the university. To such a reputation his eccentricity of manner, which seems to have resulted from his occasional absorption or passionate enthusiasm, largely contributed. Of the greatest importance for the development of his rare powers in a definite direction was the general condition of thought at the time of his residence at Dublin. The older text-books of physics and philosophy were no doubt in use (Dublin in this respect has always been conservative), but alongside of them the influences of the new modes of thinking were streaming in. The opposed physical systems of Descartes and Newton had begun to be known; the new 'and powerful calculus was being handled; the revolution in metaphysical speculation inaugurated by Descartes had reached Dublin; and, above all, the first great English work on pure philosophy, the Essay of Locke, had been translated into Latin, and its doctrines were being eagerly and minutely discussed by the young Trinity College students. Add to this the undoubted influence exercised by the presence in Dublin of such men as the university provost, Peter Browne, afterwards bishop of Cork, and King, archbishop of Dublin from 1703, and it will readily be seen that Berkeley, to use Professor Fraser's words, "entered an atmosphere which beginning to be charged with the elements of reaction was Although more competent than any man of his time to appreciate these new movements of thought; Berkeley did not neglect the routine work of the university. He had a distinguished career, was made scholar in 1702, took his B. A. degree in 1704, and obtained a fellowship in 1707. That his interest, however, was mainly directed towards subjects purely philosophical, is evidenced partly by the share he took in setting afloat a speculative society in which the problems suggested by Descartes and Locke seem to have been discussed with infinite vigour, but, above all, by his Common Place Book, containing his thoughts on physics and philosophy from about the year 1703. This curious document, one of the most valuable autobiographical records in existence, throws a flood of light on the growth of Berkeley's own conceptions, and enables us to understand, far more clearly than we otherwise could, the significance of his first published works. In the Common Place Book, if in any writing, is to be found the keen consciousness of possessing a fresh, creative thought, the application of which will change the whole aspect of speculative science. The very first sentences refer to some new principle, and the whole book thereafter is occupied turning over and over again the new conception, showing the different aspects it assumes, and the various applications it has, bringing it face to face with possible objections, and critically considering the relation in which it stands to the fundamental thoughts of his great predecessors, Descartes, Malebranche, and Locke. So far as reading goes, the Common Place Book shows but a slight acquaintance with ancient or scholastic philosophies; it is evident that the author does not appreciate Spinoza; he does not refer to Leibnitz; Malebranche is frequently mentioned, but hardly in such a way as to manifest sympathetic understanding of him; Norris, the English follower of Malebranche, seems to be unnoticed; More and the Mystics, when referred to, are quoted on isolated points, and to their system the young philosopher evidently felt no attraction. Descartes and Locke, above all the latter, are his real masters in speculation, and it is from the careful consideration of their systems that the new principle has sprung to light. And what is this principle As Professor Fraser has said, there are many ways of expressing it, and Berkeley himself has never given any very definite enunciation. To put it in a form as nearly as possible resembling the statements in the Common Place Book, it may be expressed in the proposition that no existence is conceivable and therefore possible which is not either conscious spirit or the ideas (i.e., objects) of which such spirit is conscious. Existing things consist of ideas or objects perceived or willed, while perception and volition are inconceivable and impossible save as the operations of mind or spirit. In the language of a later philosophy, the principle is that of the absolute synthesis of subject and object; no object exists apart from mind. Mind is therefore the deepest reality; it is the prius both in thought and in existence, if for the moment we assume the popular distinction between these two. From this primitive truth, which, it seems to Berkeley, merely requires careful consideration in order to be at once accepted, he never wavers. Let attention be but confined to the only possible meaning which existence can have, and, Berkeley thinks, the principle must appear self-evident. Thus he puts in a new light the perennial problems of philosophy, and instead of discussing the nature and relations of assumed entities, such as matter, substance, or cause, would ask us to consider whether or not these have any significance apart from the perceptions or volitions of conscious spirit, what in that case they do mean, and whether the supposed difficulties connected with them do not vanish when their true interpretation is thoroughly grasped. Of all these difficulties that concerned with the nature of matter is of greatest importance to Berkeley. From misconceptions of the true nature of material substance have flowed, according to him, the materialisin, scepticism, and infidelity which disfigured the age; and all these are completely banished by the new principle. The applications of his principle and his own inclinations led Berkeley into other departments of science which he was not so well qualified to handle. The first result of the principle, as he conceived it, is undoubtedly empiricism in the theory of cognition. The ultimate elements of knowledge are the minima of consciousness, presentative or representative; pure thought and abstract ideas are not capable of being realized by the mind, and are therefore impossible. The only mathematical processes to which these ininima can be subjected are addition and subtraction; and consequently great part of the Common Place Book is occupied with a vigorous and in many points exceedingly ignorant polemic against the fundamental conceptions of the fluxional and infinitesimal calculus, a polemic which Berkeley carried on to the end of his days. He soon began to appear as an author. In 1707 he published two short tracts on mathematics, aud in 1709 the New Theory of Vision, in which he applied his new principle, though without stating it explicitly. The new theory is a critical examination of the true meaning of the externality which is apparently given in visual consciousness, and which, to the unphilosophical mind, is the strongest evidence of the independent existence of outer objects. Such visual consciousness is shown to be ultimately a system of arbitrary signs, symbolizing for us certain actual or possiblo tactual experience-in fact, a language which we learn through custom. The difference between the contents of the visual and the tactual consciousness is absolute; they have no element in common. The visible and visual signs are definitely connected with tactual experiences, and the association between them, which has grown up in our minds through custom or habit, rests upon, or is guaranteed by, the constant conjunction of the two by the will of the Universal Mind. But this synthesis, whether on the objective side as the universal thought or course of naturo, or on the subjective side as mental association, is not brought forward prominently by Berkeley. It was at the same time perfectly evident that a quite similar analysis might have been applied to tactual consciousness, which does not give externality in its deepest significance any more than visual; but it was with deliberate purpose that Berkeley at first drew out only one side of his argument. In 1710 the new doctrine received its full statement in the Principles of Human Knowledge, | where externality in its ultimate sense as independence of all mind is considered; where matter, as an abstract, unperceived substance or cause, is shown to be an impossible and unreal conception; where true substance is affirmed to be conscious spirit, true causality the free activity of such a spirit, while physical substantiality and causality in their new meaning are held to be merely arbitrary but constant relations among phenomena connected subjectively by suggestion or association, conjoined objectively in the Universal Mind. In ultimate analysis, then, nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol of a divine, universal intelligence and will. In the preceding year Berkeley had been ordained as deacon, and in 1711 he delivered his Discourse on Passive Obedience, in which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to promote the general happiness, thus working out a theological utilitarianism, which may with advantage be compared with the later expositions of Austin and Mill. From the year 1707 he had been engaged as college tutor; in 1712 ho paid a short visit to Eugland, and in April of the following year he was presented by Swift at court. His splendid abilities and fine courteous manners, combined with the purity and uprightness of his character, made him a universal favourite. While in London he published his Dialogues (1713), a more popular exposition of his new theory; for exquisite facility of style these are perhaps the finest philosophical writings in the English language. In November of the same year he became chaplain to Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied on the Continent, returning in August 1714. He travelled again in 1715 as tutor to the son of Dr Ashe, and was absent from England for five years. On his way home he wrote and seut to the French Academy the essay De Motu, in which is given a full account of his new coception of causality, the fundamental and all-comprehensive thought in his philosophy. In 1721, during the disturbed state of social relations consequent on the bursting of the the great South Sea bubble, he published an Essay towards preventing the Ruin of Great Britain, which shows the intense interest he took in all practical affairs. In the same year he returned to Ireland as-chaplain to the duke of Grafton, and was made divinity lecturer and university preacher. In 1722 he was appointed to the deanery of Dromore, a post which seems to have entailed no duties, as we find him holding the offices of Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The following year brought him an unexpected addition of fortune, Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift's Vanessa, having left him half her property. It would appear that he had only met her once at dinner. In 172 he was nominated to the rich dennery of Derry, but hal hardly been appointed before he was using every effort to resign it in order to devote himself to his enthusiastically conceived scheme of founding a college in the Bermudas, and extending its benefits to the Americans. With infinite exertion he succeeded in obtaining from Government a promise of £20,000, and, after four years spent in preparation, sailed in September 1728, accompanied by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom he had married in the preceding month. Their destination was Rhode Island, where they resolved to wait for the promised grant from Government. Three years of quiet retirement and study were spent in the island. Berkeley bought a farm, made many friends, and endeared himself to the inhabitants. But it gradually became apparent that Government would never hand over the promised grant, if indeed they had ever seriously contemplated doing Berkeley was therefore compelled reluctantly to give up his cherished plan. Soon after his return he published the fruits of his quiet studies in Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (1733), a finely written work in the form of dialogue, critically examining the various forms of freethinking in the age, and bringing forward in antithesis to them his own theory, which shows all nature to be the language of God. The work was extremely popular. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric of Cloyne, and at once went into residence. The same year, in his Analyst, he attacked the higher mathematics as leading to freethinking; this involved him in a hot controversy. The Qurist, a practical work in the form of questions on what would now be called social or economical philosophy, appeared in three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737 In 1744 was published the Siris, partly occasioned by the controversy with regard to tar-water, but rising far above the petty circumstance from which it took its rise, and in its chain of reflections revealing the matured thoughts and wide reading of its author, while opening up hidden depths in the Berkeleian metaphysics. In 1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family to Oxford for the sake of his son George who was studying there. On the even ing of the 14th January 1753, he expired suddenly and painlessly in the midst of his family. And thus quietly closed one of the purest and most beautiful lives on record. His remains were deposited in Christ Church, Oxford. Although Berkeley's new principle is susceptible of brief statement, it is by no means equally possible to give in short compass an adequate account of its systematic application to the several problems of philosophy. It may be sufficient here to indicate generally the relation of the new conception to preceding systems, and to inquire how far the principle is metaphysically justifiable. In the philosophies of Descartes and Locke a large share of attention had been directed to the idea of matter, which was held to be the abstract, unperceived background of real experience, and was supposed to give rise to our ideas of external things through its action on the sentient mind. Knowledge being limited to the ideas produced could never extend to the unperceived matter, or substance, or cause which produced them, and it became a problem for speculative science to determine the grounds for the very belief in its existence. Philosophy seemed about to end in scepticism or in materialism. Now Berkeley put this hole problem in a new light by pointing out that a preliminary question must be raised and answered. Before we deduce results from such abstract ideas as cause, substance, inatter, we must ask what in reality do these mean,-what is the actual content of consciousness which corresponds to these words! Do not all these ideas, when held to represent something which exists absolutely apart from all knowledge of it, involve a contradiction! Are they not truly, when so regarded, inconceivable, and mere arbitrary figments which cannot possibly be realized in consciousness? In putting this question, not less than in answering it, consists Berkeley's distinct originality as a philosopher. The essence of the answer, as has been already seen, is that the universe is inconceivable apart from mind,-that existence, as such, denotes conscious spirits and the objects of consciousness. Matter and external things, in so far as they are thought to have an existence beyond the circle of consciousness, are impossible, inconceivable, absurd. External things are things known to us in inmediate perception. To this conclusion Berkeley seems, in the first place, to have been led by the train of reflection that naturally conducts to subjective or egoistic idealism. It is impossible to overstep the limits of self-consciousness; whatever words I use, whatever notions I have, must refer to and find their meaning in facts of consciousness. And there can be no doubt that in certain earlier aspects of his theory, where, for example, it appears as a ere analysis of what is meant by reality, it does not rise above this subjective stand-point. But this is by no means the whole or even the principal part of Berkeley's philosophy; it is essentially a theory of causality, and this is brought out gradually under the pressure of difficulties in the first solution of the early problem. To inerely subjective idealism, sense percepts differ from ideas of imagination in degree, not in kind; both belong to the individual mind. To Berkeley, however, the difference is fundamental; sense ideas are not due to our own activity, they do not result from our will; they must therefore be produced by some other will,-by the divine intelligence. Sense experience is thus the constant action upon our minds of supreme active intellect, and is not the consequence of dead inert matter. It might appear, therefore, that sensible things had an objective existence in the mind of God; that an idea so soon as it passes out of our consciousness passes into that of God. This is an interpretation, frequently and not without some justice, put upon Berkeley's own expression. But it is not a satisfactory account of his theory. Berkeley is compelled to see that an immediate perception is not a thing, and that what we consider permanent or substantial is not a sensation but a group of qualities, which in ultimate analysis means sensations either immediately felt or such as our experience has taught us would be felt in conjunction with these. Our belief in the reality of a thing may therefore be said to mean assurance that this association in our minds between actual and possible sensations is somehow guaranteed. Further, Berkeley's own theory would never permit him to speak of possible sensations, meaning by that the ideas of sensations called up to our minds by present experience. He could never have held that these afforded any explanation of the permanent existence of real objects. His theory is quite distinct from this, which really amounts to nothing more thar. subjective idealism. External things are produced by the will of the divine intelligence; they are caused, and caused in a regular order; there exist in the divine mind archetypes, of which sense experience may be said to be the realization in our finite minds. Our belief in the permanence of something which corresponds to the association in our minds of actual and possible sensations means belief in the orderliness of nature; and that is merely assurance that the universe is pervaded and regulated by mind. Human science is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the divine ideas which find realization in our limited experience, in trying to interpret the divine language of which natural things are the words and letters, and in striving to bring hunan conceptions into harmony with the divine thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fato or necessity, or matter, or the unknown, universe, and this is the essence of the Berkeleian metaphysica a living, active mind is looked upon as the centre and spring of the It may be safely said that the deeper aspects of Berkeley's now thought have been almost universally neglected or misunderstood. Of his spiritual empiricism only one side has been accepted by sater thinkers, and has been looked upon as the whole. The subjective mechanism of association which with Berkeley is but part of the true explanation, and is dependent on the objective realization, in the divine mind, has been received as in itself a satisfactory theory. Sunt Cogitationes has been regarded by thinkers who profess themselves Berkeleians as the one proposition warranted by conscious ness; the empiricism of his philosophy has been eagerly welcomed, while the spiritual intuition, without which the whole is to Berkeley meaningless, has been cast aside. For this he is himself in no small measure to blame. The deeper spiritual intuition, present from the first, was only brought into clear relief in order to meet difficultie in the earlier statements; and the extension of the intuition itself beyond the limits of our own consciousness, which completely removes his position from mere subjectivism, rests on foundations positions of his system. uncritically assumed, and at first sight irreconcilable with certain The necessity and universality of the judgments of causality and substantiality are taken for granted; and there is no investigation of the place held by these notions in the mental constitution. The relation between the divine mind and finite intelligence, at first thought as that of agent and recipient, is complicated and obscure when the necessity for explaining the permanence of real things comes forward. The divine archetypes, according to which sensible experience is regulated and in which it finds its real objectivity, are different in kind from mere sense ideas, and the question then arises whether in these we have not again the "things as they are," which Berkeley at first so contemptuously dismissed. He leaves it undetermined whether or not our knowledge of sense things, which is never entirely presentative, involves some reference to this objective course of nature or thought of the divine mind. And if so, what is the nature of the notions necessarily implied in the simplest knowledge of a thing, as distinct from mere sense feeling? That in knowing objects certain thoughts are implied which are not presentations or their copies, is at times dimly seen by Berkeley himself; but he was content to propound a question with regard to those notions, and to look upon them as merely Locke's ideas of relation. Such ideas of relation are in truth the stumbling-block in Locke's philosophy, and Berkeley's empiricism is equally far from accounting for them. With all these defects, however, Berkeley's new conception marks a distinc stage of progress in human thought. His true place in the history of speculation may be seen from the simple observation that the difficulties or obscurities in his scheme are really the points on which later philosophy has turned. He once for all lifted the problem of metaphysics to a higher level, and, in conjunction with his great successor, Hume, determined the form into which later metaphysical questions have been thrown. The classical edition of Berkeley's works is that by Professor Fraser (4 vols.-vols. i.-iii., Works; vol. iv., Life, Letters, and Dissertation on his Philosophy, Clarendon Press, 1871), who has been the first, there and in various essays, to exhibit the true form of Berkeley's philosophy. See also Ueberweg's notes to his translation of the Principles (1869); Krauth's American edition of the Principles, with Prof. Fraser's introduction and notes, and a translation of those of Ueberweg; Collyns. Simon, Universal Immaterialism (1847); Nature and Elements of the External World (1862): Friedrich, Ueber Berkeley's Idealismus (1870). Discussions on variou points of Berkeley's doctrine will be found in Fichte's Zeitschr vol. lvi. sqq.; Mill's Dissertations, vols. ii. and iv.; Huxley, Critiques and Addresses, p. 320, sqq.; Ferrier, Remains, vol. ii. Two adverse reviews of the Theory of Vision may also be noted-Bailey, Review of Berkeley's Theory of Vision (1842); and Abbott, Sight and Touch (1864); with the last may be compared Monck, Space and Vision. (R. AD.) BERKHAMPSTEAD, GREAT, a market-town of England, in the county of Herts, 26 miles N.W. of London, on the Junction Canal and the North-Western Railway. It has a spacious cruciform church, with a tower of the 16th century, a market-house, erected in 1860, which includes a corn exchange and a library, a grammar school, a free school, several almshouses, a jail, &c. Straw-plaiting and the manufacture of small wooden wares are the principal industries. The town is of considerable antiquity, and was one of the royal residences under the Mercian kings, a distinction which it again enjoyed under Ilenry II. The castle, at that time a fortress of some importance, was bestowed on the Black Prince,. and since then the manor has remained an apanage of the successive princes of |