unmarried persons was 3,011,566, of married persons 1,528,543, | of widowers and widows 287,724. As regards their places of birth, 8,348,508 had been born in the same commune in which they lived; 1,381,231 had been born in another commune of the same province; 288,672 had been born in another province of the kingdom, 13,044 in the ceded districts of Luxembourg or Limbourg, 26, 435 in other parts of Holland, 32,021 in France, 20,701 in Germany, 3003 in England, and 2892 in other countries. In 1873 the births were 170,708, being 87,128 males, and 83,580 females, or 104 males to 100 females,-giving one birth to every 30-3 of the population, and 151 births to a hundred deaths. Of the births 158,585 were legitimate and 12,123 illegitimate, or 13 legitimate births to 1 illegitimate. The proportion, however, varies much in the different provinces, being 7 5 to 1 in Brabant, and 37 to 1 in Luxembourg. The number of marriages that took place was 40,598, and of deaths 112,873. Of the latter, 24,282 were under one year, and 16,730 between one and five years of age; 315 males and 62 females were by suicide, 2068 were from accidents, and 69 were murdered. immigrations were 15,792, and the emigrations 7981.

The

The languages spoken in Belgium are French or Walloon (a dialect of the ancient French), and Flemish or Dutch. French is the language of the upper and educated classes, and is generally understood even in the Flemish parts of the kingdom. In 1866 those speaking French or Walloon amounted to 2,041.784; Flemish or Dutch, 2,406,991; French and Flemish, 308,361; German, 35,356, French and German, 20,448; Flemish and German, 1625; and the three languages, 4966. The French or Walloon is the prevailing language in the provinces of Hainault, Liége, Luxembourg, and Namur; the Flemish or Dutch in Antwerp, Brabant, the two Flanders, and Limbourg.

Since the formation of Belgium into an independent state, the Government has taken a laudable interest in all that concerns the advancement and happiness of the people; and not being trammelled by a respect for old laws or useless customs, it has adopted, as far as possible, the most improved systems of other countries. The whole system of government is based upon the broadest principles of rational freedom and liberality. All power emanates from the people, and can be exercised only according to law. The people are upon a strict equality in the eye of the law; personal liberty is guaranteed to all, as well as entire freedom in opinion and in religious worship. All the religious sects are endowed by the state, and large grants are also given annually for educational and charitable purposes. Home is inviolable, nor can any one be deprived of his property unless for the good of the state and for a suitable indemnity. Justice is open to all, as well as the means of education, and the benefits of the public charities. The press is free, and civil death is abolished. Any one may address petitions to the public authorities signed by one or more persons. Trial by jury is established for all criminal and political charges, and for offences of the press. The contents of letters are inviolable, and the post-office is responsible for all letters committed to it.

The government is a constitutional representative and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the king, the chamber of representatives, and the senate. The judicial power is exercised by fixed tribunals, freed from all authoritative influences, judging publicly, and assigning reasons for their decisions. Affairs exclusively provincial or communal are managed by the provincial or communal councils

The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture, to the exclusion of females and their descendants. The king's person is declared sacred, and his ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government. No act of the king can have effect unless countersigned by one of his ministers, who thus becomes the responsible party. The king convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the chambers, and makes rules and orders necessary for the execution of the laws, but has no power to suspend or dispense with the execution of the laws

themselves. He nominates to civil and military offices, and commands the sea and land forces. He declares war, and concludes treaties of peace, of alliance, and of commerce,-communicating the same to the chambers as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of the state. He sanctions and promulgates the laws, and has the power of remitting or reducing the punishments pronounced by the judges, except in the case of his ministers, to whom he can extend pardon only at the request of one of the chambers. In default of male heirs the king may nominate his suc cessor with the consent of the chambers. The regency can only be conferred upon one person, and no change in the constitution can be made under his rule.

The people are represented in the Legislature by the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, the members of which are chosen by the people. Each chamber determines the manner of exercising its own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-presidents, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented personally; and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority, except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the members are required to be favourable; in the case of an equality of votes the proposition is thrown out. The chambers meet annually in the month of November, and should sit for at least forty days; but the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. On dissolution a new election must take place within forty days, and a meeting of the chambers within two months. An adjournment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the consent of the chambers.

The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen directly by the people paying a certain amount of direct taxes. The number of deputies is fixed according to the population, and cannot exceed one member for every 40.000 inhabitants; at present they amount to 124. To be eligible for membership it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth or to have received the grand naturalization, to be in the possession of the civil and political rights of the kingdom, to have attained the age of twenty-five years, and to be resident in Belgium. The members not residing in the town where the chamber sits receive, during the session, an indemnity of 200 florins (£16, 13s. 4d.) each

per month. half going out every two years, except in the case of a dissolution, when a general election takes place. This chamber has the parliamentary initiative and the preliminary vote in all cases relating to the receipts and expenses of the state, and to the contingent of the army.

The members are clected for four years, one

The electors of the Chamber of Representatives have also the nomination of the members of the Senate. To be eligible as a senator it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth or to have received the grand naturalization, to be in the enjoyment of civil and political rights, to be domiciled in Belgium, to be forty years of age, and to pay at least 1000 florins (£84) of direct taxes. In those provinces where the number of those paying 1000 florins of taxes does not amount to one in every 6000 inhabitants, this proportion is made up by those paying the highest amount below that sum. The permanent deputations of the provincial councils annually prepare a list of those who are eligible to the Senate. In 1874 the number of these was 453. At the age of eighteen the heir-presumptive to the throne has a seat in the Senate, but he has no voice in its deliberations till he attain the age of twenty-five. The senators receive no indemnity. They are elected for eight years, one-half going out every four years, except in the case of a dissolution. The Senate is composed of half as many members as the Chamber of Representatives, the number at present being 62.

consistory of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the central, and one by each of three first-class synagogues. The grand rabbi, who is at the head of this body in Belgium, is, ex officio, a member of the consistory.

The Belgian Government has shown itself thoroughly alive to the great importance of a general diffusion of education among the people. Numerous public schools and literary and scientific institutions are established throughout the country, supported out of the communal, provincial, or Government funds. Different classes of inspectors are appointed to visit and report upon the state of education in their various districts. Prizes, scholarships, and other rewards are bestowed upon those that distinguish themselves most in the prosecution of their studies. Religious and moral instruction is under the direction of the sect to which the majority of the pupils belong; but those connected with other sects may be exempted from attendance on this course. Normal schools have also been established for the purpose of securing trained and efficient teachers. The schools are open to all, and gratuitous instruction is provided for those who may not otherwise have the means of acquiring it. Yet, with all these advantages, there are still many among the lower classes growing up in ignorance. According to the census of 1866, out of a population of 4,827,833, only 2,279,891 were able to read and write, giving, if we exclude all of seven years of age and under, only 58 per cent. of the population. This proportion varied considerably in the different provinces, being as high as 77 in Luxembourg and 71 in Namur, and as low as 48 in East and 51 in West Flanders. In 1843 only 49 per cent. of those who took part in the balloting for the militia were able to read and write; in 1853, 56; in 1863, 62; | and in 1873, 74. Out of 42,313 in 1873, 8678 were unable to read or write, 2027 could read but could not write, 13,887 were able to read and write, and 16,836 had received a superior education. This shows that it is not enough merely to provide the means of education in order to secure an educated population. In the industrial localities the parents are generally anxious to get their children admitted as soon as possible into workshops and manufactories, and in rural districts they are engaged in tending cattle or in field labour.

The educational institutions may be divided into four classes, viz., primary, middle, superior, and special.

A law passed in 1842 enacted that there should be at least one primary school in every commune, except in certain cases where primary education is already sufficiently provided for by private schools, or where one school may serve for several neighbouring communes. The communes may also adopt one or more private schools, possessing the legal qualifications, to occupy the place of the communal school. The branches taught are reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic; the rudiments of the language spoken in the locality, French, Flemish, or German; moral and religious instruction; and the legal system of weights and measures, in most schools taught practically. In many of the schools gymnastics, music, the elements of drawing, the outlines of history and geography, and the rudiments of the natural sciences, are also taught. The communes are obliged to afford gratuitous instruction to all the children within their bounds whose parents are in poor circumstances or are otherwise unable to educate them. The primary schools are under the surveillance of the communal authorities and Government inspectors; and the imparting of moral and religious instruction is superintended by delegates from the religious bodies. Each province has a general inspector of the primary schools, who is appointed by the king, and inspects, at least once a year, all the communal schools in his district. Under him are the cantonal inspectors, who must visit the schools in their dis

tricts at least twice a year. In 1872 the primary schools submitting to inspection were communal, 3949; adopted, 469; private, 18; and boarding, 22; besides which there were 990 private schools and 230 boarding schools not under inspection. Of the inspected schools 1353 were for boys, 1284 for girls, and 1821 for both sexes; and of the non-inspected 267 were for boys, 693 for girls, and 261 for both sexes. The total number of primary schools was 5678, giving on an average 2.21 schools to each commune, and 1·13 to each 1000 of the population. The total number of scholars attending these schools was 618,937 (or 12.3 per cent. of the population), of whom 313,165 were boys and 305,772 girls; 518,141 were at inspected schools, and 100,796 at non-inspected. The number of scholars attending the communal schools was 449,940, of whom 325,432 were instructed gratuitously; and attending the adopted schools 63,594, of whom 42,521 were receiving gratuitous instruc tion. The total number of teachers and assistants was 10,629, of whom 5394 were males and 5235 females; of these, 4656 males and 2977 females were in the communal or adopted schools. The teachers in the communal schools are appointed by the communal councils, which have the power of suspending them for a period not exceeding three months, the Government decreeing as to their absolute dismissal or reinstatement. They are required to have attended, for at least two years, the classes of a normal school. Besides the primary schools properly so called, there are

in many localities other establishments where primary instruction is communicated, as the infant, adult, manufacturing schools, &c. The infant schools are for children between two and six years of age. There were in 1872, 780 of these schools, of which 212 were communal, 220 private but under inspection, and 348 private and noninspected. The total number of pupils was 78,181.

În the adult schools the branches taught are generally the same as in the communal primary schools. The communal councils are invited to establish such schools, and of late years considerable progress has been made in this direction. In 1863 the number of adult schools was 1194, with in all 188,890 scholars; and in 1872, 2351, with 199,957 scholars. In the latter year 1454 of the schools were communal, 74 private inspected, and 823 private non-inspected. Of the scholars 98,558 were males, and 101,399 females; 56,880 were at communal schools, where 54,630 were receiving gratuitous instruction, and 7362 at adopted schools, where 7179 were gratuitously instructed. There are also primary schools annexed to prisons, hospitals, and depôts of mendicants, and reform schools. The number of these in 1872 was 97, and of scholars 6485. Considerable sums are given by Government for providing food, clothing, and other necessaries for the poor children attending the primary and infant schools.

The expenses of public primary education fall in the first instance on the commune; and in case of insufficiency of funds, the province, and finally the state, come to its assistance. Each commune, however, must contribute a sum equal to at least two per cent. upon its direct taration before being entitled to claim any assistance from the province or state. The total expenditure for public primary education was,-in 1843, 2,651,639 francs; in 1853, 4,465,411; and in 1863, 9,372,259. In 1872 it was 16,200,843 or £648,033, of which 1,326,659 francs were school fees received, 506,512 public or private donations, 5,863,561 were contributed by the communes, 1,584,010 by the provinces, and 6,643,415 by the state.

The middle schools are divided into two classes, those supported by the Government, and those maintained by the communes. The former are of two kinds-(1), the royal athenæums, called also the middle superior schools; and (2), the middle inferior, schools, or the middle schools properly

so called, including the former superior primary, as well as the schools formerly known as industrial and commercial schools.

There are ten royal athenæums, two in Hainault, and one in each of the other provinces, viz., in the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Mons, Tournay, Liége, Hasselt, Arlon, and Namur. In each of these are two courses, the one for the humanities and the other for a professional education. The professional course is divided into a lower division, comprehending a course of three classes, each of one year, and an upper division, with three sections, the commercial, industrial, and scientific, each divided into two classes, and extending over two years. In 1872 the number of students at the athenæums was 3562, of whom 623 were in the preparatory classes, 1157 in the humanity section, and 1782 in the professional.

In the state middle schools the courses are arranged so as to occupy three years. To some is annexed a preparatory section, making a year more. The number of these schools in 1872 was 50, with 9012 scholars. The communal middle schools are of two grades, a first and second, the former embracing 17 schools, the latter 16. They ought to be based upon the same principles, and teach the same branches as the royal athenæums and middle schools. In 1872 the number of scholars in the first or higher grade of schools was 1381, of whom 239 were in the preparatory classes, 730 in the humanity section, and 412 in the professional. The number of scholars in the lower grade of schools was 1828, of whom 1274 were in the lower sections and 554 in the higher. Most of these schools have libraries, museums of natural history, and chemical laboratories attached to them. There are in addition to these 75 unendowed colleges, of which 45 are Episcopal and 11 Jesuit.

The educational staff consists of a prefect of studies in the athenæums, and a rector in the middle schools, professors, regents, and masters. The prefects, professors, rectors, and regents are nominated by the king, and the masters and teachers by the minister of the interior. The diploma of a professor agregé of either degree is bestowed by a special jury after a searching examination. It is given without regard to the place where the candidate has studied. The prefects and rectors reside on the premises, and have the general direction and management of the institutions over which they are placed. Each has to report annually as to the state and condition of the institution under his care, and to register the conduct and progress of the scholars.

The middle, like the primary schools, are subjected to a regular system of inspection. The literary and scientific branches are under the superintendence of two inspectors and an inspector-general nominated by the king. To one of the inspectors is especially confided the mathematical and natural sciences, and to the other the humanities; the other branches, as history, geography, and the commercial sciences, may be committed to either of the inspectors or to the inspector-general. The inspector has to examine and report upon the state and discipline of each establishment, the methods employed in teaching, the progress made by the pupils, and the merit and zeal of the teachers. The conseil de prefectionnement for the direction and improvement of middle education is composed of from eight to ten members, mostly professors in the universities, presided over by the minister of the interior or his deputy, and meets at least four times a year. A general competition takes place annually among the scholars of the athenæums and colleges receiving grants from Government, to which, however, scholars from other establishments may be admitted. The examinations are both written and oral; and the rewards are of three kinds, prizes, accessits, and honourable mention.

The amount contributed by the state to the athenæums in 1872 was 467,575 francs, to the state middle schools 418,589, and to the communal middle schools 184,079. The amount contributed by the communes to the athenæums was 291,937 francs, to the state middle schools 169,320, and to the communal middle schools 232,359.

The superior instruction establishments are the four universities,-two belonging to the state, at Ghent and Liége, the free university at Brussels, and the Catholic university at Louvain.

Each of the state universities has faculties of philosophy and literature, science, law, and medicine. In each there are 8 professors in philosophy, 9 in the sciences, 7 in law, and 8 in medicine. One or two additional professors may be added to each of the faculties in case of necessity. The professors are nominated by the king, and cannot exercise any other profession without the consent of the Government.

Attached to each university are a number of agregés named by the king. Their title is honorary, and they are chosen from among those students who have most distin. guished themselves at the public competitions or final examinations, from professors of middle instruction, or from members of the civil or military body of engineers. They are nominally attached to one of the faculties, but are not prohibited from exercising any of the liberal professions, and in case of any of the professors being unable to perform his duties, a substitute is chosen from among the agregés attached to that faculty.

The universities are under the management of a rector, a secretary, deans of faculty, the senatus academicus, and the board of assessors. The rector is nominated by the king for three years, and has the direction of all academic matters. The secretary is appointed annually by the king from a list of two candidates nominated by the senatus academicus. The deans of the faculties are chosen annually by the professors of each faculty, and have the right of convoking the professors of their faculty. The senatus and the board of assessors are convoked by the rector; the former is composed of the professors, under the presidency of the rector, and the latter of the rector, secretary, and the deans of faculty.

Each student pays annually for enrolment 15 francs, and then takes out a ticket for the branches of the course in which he intends to take his examinations. For philosophy and literature, and for law, the annual ticket costs 250 francs, and 200 francs for the other faculties. The instructions are given in the French language. Subsidies are accorded by Government to the universities for the libraries, botanical gardens, cabinets, &c.; but the towns of Liége and Ghent are bound to maintain the buildings. The sum granted by the state to the two universities in 1873 was 937,919 francs.

Attached to the university of Ghent is a school for civil engineers. The preparatory course extends over two years, and comprehends the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences necessary to the subsequent courses. The special course is divided into two sections, the one for engineers of roads and bridges, and the other for architectural engineers. This course continues for two or three years. The third course, which lasts for three years, is for industrial engineers or persons engaged in arts or manufactures. They are instructed in the application of the various sciences to the arts and manufactures, particularly to the mechanical arts.

Similar to the above is the mining school attached to the university of Liége. The first course is preparatory to the other two. The special course includes all the branches necessary to a mining engineer. The third course is for those desirous of obtaining a knowledge of mining, min

erals, &c., more particularly as connected with the arts and manufactures. This last course extends over three years. The free university of Brussels has faculties of philosophy and literature, of science, of law, and of medicine, courses in which are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and agregés. Each student pays annually 15 francs for enrolment, and a fee of 200 or 250 francs for the courses in any of the faculties. The fee for single classes is generally 50 francs. An annual subsidy of 10,000 francs is allocated to the university by the provincial council of Brabant, and the permanent deputation has the right of annually presenting ten youths of the province for gratuitous instruction. A subsidy of 50,000 francs is also allocated annually by the communal council of Brussels. The university is governed by an administrative council, composed partly of permanent members and partly of members chosen annually by the professors of the four faculties and the former students of the university. This council is presided over by the burgomaster of Brussels, who has a casting vote in its proceedings.

The Catholic university of Louvain is governed by a grand rector, nominated and revocable by the episcopal body. A vice rector is also nominated by the episcopal body on the advice of the grand rector. The rector nominates the secretary and other functionaries of the university. The faculties are philosophy and literature, the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, law, medicine, and theology. The courses of the five faculties are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and lecturers, nominated by the episcopal body on the presentation of the rector. The enrolment-fee for the first year is 10 francs, and 5 francs annually thereafter. The annual fee for courses in the faculties varies from 200 to 250 francs, except the theological courses, which are gratuitous. It has an extensive library, cabinets of mineralogy, zoology, &c., and a botanical garden. The numbers of the students at each of the universities in 1874 were-Ghent, 222; Liége, 518; Brussels, 580; and Louvain, 909.

A competition takes place annually among the scholars of superior instruction, and at these competitions two gold medals are given in each of the faculties. There are also twelve travelling scholarships given annually, tenable for two years, to such students as have taken their doctor's degree with the highest distinction and wish to travel, to enable them to visit foreign countries; and about sixty bursaries of 400 francs each are given annually to poor students to enable them to prosecute their studies. Besides these there are connected with the universities a number of private bursaries, the management and bestowal of which are in the hands of particular persons or corporations in terms of the acts of foundation.

The special educational institutions of Belgium are of various kinds, and are generally in a very efficient state. They include (in addition to the engineering and mining schools already mentioned) normal schools, military schools, navigation schools, &c., and academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, music, &c.

There are two Government normal schools for primary teachers, one at Lierre and the other at Nivelles.-the former having twelve and the latter thirteen professors, with a rector each. The course extends over three years, and during the last year of attendance the pupils are exercised in teaching in the primary schools of the town. There are also seven episcopal normal schools, in which similar branches are taught, except that the principles of the Catholic religion are more particularly inculcated. The chief diocesan nominates the rectors and professors. The course lasts for four years. Besides these there are several private normal schools for males and females, one or more institutions for the training of female teachers by each province, and normal

primary sections attached to the middle schools of Bruges, Ghent, Huy, Virton, and Couvin.

Bursaries of 200 francs each are annually given by Government to assist poor students attending the normal schools; and students of promise, who have taken diplomas at either of the Government primary normal schools, may be admitted to the normal school of middle instruction at Nivelles. The course here is for two years. There are also for the training of teachers for the superior middle institutions, the normal school of the humanities at Liége, and the normal school of the sciences at Ghent. Candidates for admission must be young men of superior talents, qualifying them to perform creditably the duties of professor, and they must pass certain examinations. The branches taught in both schools extend over three years. In the school at Liége there are fourteen bursaries of 500 francs each, given to the poorer students, the recipients becoming bound to act as professors in one of the middle schools for five years. There are five bursaries of 500 francs in connection with the school at Ghent.

There is a military school at Brussels for training officers for the army. The number of scholars in 1873 was 129. The courses are divided into two sections; the one, which extends over two years, is preparatory to the second, which also extends over two years, and is divided into special branches qualifying for the infantry, cavalry, or marines. A school has been established in Lierre for the purpose of educating the sons of the military for the army. The course extends over five years, and the pupils generally enter the army about the age of sixteen. They are placed in the army according to their proficiency, some as sub-officers and corporals, others as common soldiers. The pupils in 1873 were 252.

Each regiment has a regimental school for training young men in the army for subalterns, and a number of evening schools for affording the means of education to the soldiery. Attendance at one of these schools is obligatory on all subalterns and corporals whose education is not complete, according to their position.

There is at Messines a Royal Institution for the education of daughters of military men who have died or been disabled in the service of their country. They are admitted from seven to fourteen years of age, and remain till their eighteenth year. They are instructed in branches necessary to qualify them as governesses, teachers, domestic servants, &c., and situations are provided for them on leaving.

Schools of navigation have been established at Antwerp and Ostend for furnishing properly educated masters for merchant vessels, where instruction is given gratuitously. Certificates of qualifications as master or mate are given by a jury of examiners. There has also recently been formed at Antwerp a superior institute of commerce to afford instruction, theoretical and practical, in the commercial sciences, the course extending over two years.

A Government agricultural institute was established at Gembloux in 1860 for affording theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture and kindred subjects. There are seven professors and three assistants, and a demonstrative gardener. The course lasts for three years. Students in 1873, 71. There is a similar institution at Ghent, which in 1873 had 31 students. A school of practical horticulture and arboriculture was established at Vilvorde in 1855, which in 1873 had 29 students; the course is for three years. A similar institution at Gendbrugg has been closed since 1871. There is also a veterinary college at Brussels with, in 1873, 84 students. The course is for four years.

The academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, &c., are divided into three classes :-1. The royal academies of the fine arts, in which painting, sculpture, architecture,