consistory of nine members, six of whom are appointed by the central, and one by each of three first-class synagogues. The grand rabbi, who is at the head of this body in Belgium, is, ex officio, a member of the consistory. tricts at least twice a year. In 1872 the primary schools submitting to inspection were-communal, 3949; adopted, 469; private, 18; and boarding, 22; besides which there were 990 private schools and 230 boarding schools not under inspec The Belgian Government has shown itself thoroughly tion. Of the inspected schools 1353 were for boys, 1284 for alive to the great importance of a general diffusion of girls, and 1821 for both sexes; and of the non-inspected education among the people. Numerous public schools and 267 were for boys, 693 for girls, and 261 for both sexes. literary and scientific institutions are established through- The total number of primary schools was 5678, giving on out the country, supported out of the communal, provincial, an average 2.21 schools to each commune, and 1·13 to each or Government funds. Different classes of inspectors are 1000 of the population. The total number of scholars appointed to visit and report upon the state of education attending these schools was 618,937 (or 12.3 per cent. of in their various districts. Prizes, scholarships, and other the population), of whom 313,165 were boys and 305,772 rewards are bestowed upon those that distinguish them- girls; 518,141 were at inspected schools, and 100,796 at selves most in the prosecution of their studies. Religious non-inspected. The number of scholars attending the and moral instruction is under the direction of the sect to communal schools was 449,940, of whom 325,432 were which the majority of the pupils belong; but those con- instructed gratuitously; and attending the adopted schools nected with other sects may be exempted from attendance 63,594, of whom 42,521 were receiving gratuitous instrucon this course. Normal schools have also been established tion. The total number of teachers and assistants was for the purpose of securing trained and efficient teachers. 10,629, of whom 5394 were males and 5235 females; of The schools are open to all, and gratuitous instruction is these, 4656 males and 2977 females were in the communal provided for those who may not otherwise have the means or adopted schools. The teachers in the communal schools of acquiring it. Yet, with all these advantages, there are are appointed by the communal councils, which have the still many among the lower classes growing up in ignorance. power of suspending them for a period not exceeding three According to the census of 1866, out of a population of months, the Government decreeing as to their absolute dis4,827,833, only 2,279,891 were able to read and write, missal or reinstatement. They are required to have atgiving, if we exclude all of seven years of age and under, tended, for at least two years, the classes of a normal school. only 58 per cent. of the population. This proportion Besides the primary schools properly so called, there are varied considerably in the different provinces, being as high as 77 in Luxembourg and 71 in Namur, and as low as 48 in East and 51 in West Flanders. In 1843 only 49 per cent. of those who took part in the balloting for the militia were able to read and write; in 1853, 56; in 1863, 62; and in 1873, 74. Out of 42,313 in 1873, 8678 were unable to read or write, 2027 could read but could not write, 13,887 were able to read and write, and 16,836 had received a superior education. This shows that it is not enough merely to provide the means of education in order to secure an educated population. In the industrial localities the parents are generally anxious to get their children admitted as soon as possible into workshops and manufactories, and in rural districts they are engaged in tending cattle or in field labour. The educational institutions may be divided into four classes, viz., primary, middle, superior, and special. A law passed in 1842 enacted that there should be at least one primary school in every commune, except in certain cases where primary education is already sufficiently provided for by private schools, or where one school may serve for several neighbouring communes. The communes may also adopt one or more private schools, possessing the legal qualifications, to occupy the place of the communal school. The branches taught are reading, writing, and the elements of arithmetic; the rudiments of the language spoken in the locality,-French, Flemish, or German; moral and religious instruction; and the legal system of weights and measures, in most schools taught practically. In many of the schools gymnastics, music, the elements of drawing, the outlines of history and geography, and the rudiments of the natural sciences, are also taught. The communes are obliged to afford gratuitous instruction to all the children within their bounds whose parents are in poor circumstances or are otherwise unable to educate them. The primary schools are under the surveillance of the communal authorities and Government inspectors; and the imparting of moral and religious instruction is superintended by delegates from the religious bodies. Each province has a general inspector of the primary schools, who is appointed by the king, and inspects, at least once a year, all the communal schools in his district. Under him are the cantonal inspectors, who must visit the schools in their dis in many localities other establishments where primary instruction is communicated, as the infant, adult, manufacturing schools, &c. The infant schools are for children between two and six years of age. There were in 1872, 780 of these schools, of which 212 were communal, 220 private but under inspection, and 348 private and noninspected. The total number of pupils was 78,181. În the adult schools the branches taught are generally the same as in the communal primary schools. The communal councils are invited to establish such schools, and of late years considerable progress has been made in this direction. In 1863 the number of adult schools was 1194, with in all 188,890 scholars; and in 1872, 2351, with 199,957 scholars. In the latter year 1454 of the schools were communal, 74 private inspected, and 823 private non-inspected. Of the scholars 98,558 were males, and 101,399 females; 56,880 were at communal schools, where 54,630 were receiving gratuitous instruction, and 7362 at adopted schools, where 7179 were gratuitously instructed. There are also primary schools annexed to prisons, hospitals, and depôts of mendicants, and reform schools. The number of these in 1872 was 97, and of scholars 6485. Considerable sums are given by Government for providing food, clothing, and other necessaries for the poor children attending the primary and infant schools. The expenses of public primary education fall in the first instance on the commune; and in case of insufficiency of funds, the province, and finally the state, come to its assistance. Each commune, however, must contribute a sum equal to at least two per cent. upon its direct taxation before being entitled to claim any assistance from the province or state. The total expenditure for public primary education was,-in 1843, 2,651,639 francs; in 1853, 4,465,411; and in 1863, 9,372,259. In 1872 it was 16,200,843 or £648,033, of which 1,326,659 francs were school fees received, 506,512 public or private donations, 5,863,561 were contributed by the communes, 1,584,010 by the provinces, and 6,643,415 by the state. The middle schools are divided into two classes, those supported by the Government, and those maintained by the communes. The former are of two kinds-(1), the royal athenæums, called also the middle superior schools; and (2), the middle inferior schools, or the middle schools properly so called, including the former superior primary, as well as the schools formerly known as industrial and commercial schools. There are ten royal athenæums, two in Hainault, and one in each of the other provinces, viz., in the towns of Antwerp, Brussels, Bruges, Ghent, Mons, Tournay, Liége, Hasselt, Arlon, and Namur. In each of these are two courses, the one for the humanities and the other for a professional education. The professional course is divided into a lower division, comprehending a course of three classes, each of one year, and an upper division, with three sections, the commercial, industrial, and scientific, each divided into two classes, and extending over two years. In 1872 the number of students at the athenæums was 3562, of whom 623 were in the preparatory classes, 1157 in the humanity section, and 1782 in the professional. In the state middle schools the courses are arranged so as to occupy three years. To some is annexed a preparatory section, making a year more. The number of these schools in 1872 was 50, with 9012 scholars. The amount contributed by the state to the athenæums in 1872 was 467,575 francs, to the state middle schools 418,589, and to the communal middle schools 184,079. The amount contributed by the communes to the athenæums was 291,937 francs, to the state middle schools 169,320, and to the communal middle schools 232,359. The superior instruction establishments are the four universities,-two belonging to the state, at Ghent and Liége, the free university at Brussels, and the Catholic university at Louvain. Each of the state universities has faculties of philosophy and literature, science, law, and medicine. In each there are 8 professors in philosophy, 9 in the sciences, 7 in law, and 8 in medicine. One or two additional professors may be added to each of the faculties in case of necessity. The professors are nominated by the king, and cannot exercise any other profession without the consent of the Government. Attached to each university are a number of agregés named by the king. Their title is honorary, and they are chosen from among those students who have most distin. guished themselves at the public competitions or final examinations, from professors of middle instruction, or from members of the civil or military body of engineers. They are nominally attached to one of the faculties, but are not prohibited from exercising any of the liberal professions, and in case of any of the professors being unable to perform his duties, a substitute is chosen from among the agregés attached to that faculty. The communal middle schools are of two grades, a first and second, the former embracing 17 schools, the latter 16. They ought to be based upon the same principles, and teach the same branches as the royal athenæums and middle schools. In 1872 the number of scholars in the first or higher grade of schools was 1381, of whom 239 were in the preparatory classes, 730 in the humanity section, and 412 in the professional. The number of scholars in the lower grade of schools was 1828, of whom 1274 were in the lower sections and 554 in the higher. The universities are under the management of a rector, Most of these schools have libraries, museums of natural a secretary, deans of faculty, the senatus academicus, and history, and chemical laboratories attached to them. There the board of assessors. The rector is nominated by the are in addition to these 75 unendowed colleges, of which king for three years, and has the direction of all academic 45 are Episcopal and 11 Jesuit. matters. The secretary is appointed annually by the king from a list of two candidates nominated by the senatus academicus. The deans of the faculties are chosen annually by the professors of each faculty, and have the right of convoking the professors of their faculty. The senatus and the board of assessors are convoked by the rector; the former is composed of the professors, under the presidency of the rector, and the latter of the rector, secretary, and the deans of faculty. The educational staff consists of a prefect of studies in the athenæums, and a rector in the middle schools, professors, regents, and masters. The prefects, professors, rectors, and regents are nominated by the king, and the masters and teachers by the minister of the interior. The diploma of a professor agregé of either degree is bestowed by a special jury after a searching examination. It is given without regard to the place where the candidate has studied. The prefects and rectors reside on the premises, and have the general direction and management of the institutions over which they are placed. Each has to report annually as to the state and condition of the institution under his care, and to register the conduct and progress of the scholars. The middle, like the primary schools, are subjected to a regular system of inspection. The literary and scientific branches are under the superintendence of two inspectors and an inspector-general nominated by the king. To one of the inspectors is especially confided the mathematical and natural sciences, and to the other the humanities; the other branches, as history, geography, and the commercial sciences, may be committed to either of the inspectors or to the inspector-general. The inspector has to examine and report upon the state and discipline of each establishment, the methods employed in teaching, the progress made by the pupils, and the merit and zeal of the teachers. The conseil de prefectionnement for the direction and improvement of middle education is composed of from eight to ten members, mostly professors in the universities, presided over by the minister of the interior or his deputy, and meets at least four times a year. A general competition takes place annually among the scholars of the athenæums and colleges receiving grants from Government, to which, however, scholars from other establishments may be admitted. The examinations are both written and oral; and the rewards are of three kinds, prizes, accessits, and honourable mention. Each student pays annually for enrolment 15 francs, and then takes out a ticket for the branches of the course in which he intends to take his examinations. For philosophy and literature, and for law, the annual ticket costs 250 francs, and 200 francs for the other faculties. The instructions are given in the French language. Subsidies are accorded by Government to the universities for the libraries, botanical gardens, cabinets, &c.; but the towns of Liége and Ghent are bound to maintain the buildings. The sum granted by the state to the two universities in 1873 was 937,919 francs. Attached to the university of Ghent is a school for civil engineers. The preparatory course extends over two years, and comprehends the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences necessary to the subsequent courses. The special course is divided into two sections, the one for engineers of roads and bridges, and the other for architectural engineers. This course continues for two or three years. The third course, which lasts for three years, is for industrial engineers or persons engaged in arts or manufactures. They are instructed in the application of the various sciences to the arts and manufactures, particularly to the mechanical arts. Similar to the above is the mining school attached to the university of Liége. The first course is preparatory to the other two. The special course includes all the branches necessary to a mining engineer. The third course is for those desirous of obtaining a knowledge of mining, min erals, &c., more particularly as connected with the arts and manufactures. This last course extends over three years. The free university of Brussels has faculties of philosophy and literature, of science, of law, and of medicine, courses in which are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and agregés. Each student pays annually 15 francs for enrolment, and a fee of 200 or 250 francs for the courses in any of the faculties. The fee for single classes is generally 50 francs. An annual subsidy of 10,000 francs is allocated to the university by the provincial council of Brabant, and the permanent deputation has the right of annually presenting ten youths of the province for gratuitous instruction. A subsidy of 50,000 francs is also allocated annually by the communal council of Brussels. The university is governed by an administrative council, composed partly of permanent members and partly of members chosen annually by the professors of the four faculties and the former students of the university. This council is presided over by the burgomaster of Brussels, who has a casting vote in its proceedings. The Catholic university of Louvain is governed by a grand rector, nominated and revocable by the episcopal body. A vice rector is also nominated by the episcopal | body on the advice of the grand rector. The rector nominates the secretary and other functionaries of the university. The faculties are philosophy and literature, the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences, law, medicine, and theology. The courses of the five faculties are given by ordinary and extraordinary professors and lecturers, nominated by the episcopal body on the presentation of the rector. The enrolment-fee for the first year is 10 francs, and 5 francs annually thereafter. The annual fee for courses in the faculties varies from 200 to 250 francs, except the theological courses, which are gratuitous. It has an extensive library, cabinets of mineralogy, zoology, &c., and a botanical garden. The numbers of the students at each of the universities in 1874 were-Ghent, 222; Liége, 518; Brussels, 580; and Louvain, 909. A competition takes place annually among the scholars of superior instruction, and at these competitions two gold medals are given in each of the faculties. There are also twelve travelling scholarships given annually, tenable for two years, to such students as have taken their doctor's degree with the highest distinction and wish to travel, to enable them to visit foreign countries; and about sixty bursaries of 400 francs each are given annually to poor students to enable them to prosecute their studies. Besides these there are connected with the universities a number of private bursaries, the management and bestowal of which are in the hands of particular persons or corporations in terms of the acts of foundation. The special educational institutions of Belgium are of various kinds, and are generally in a very efficient state. They include (in addition to the engineering and mining schools already mentioned) normal schools, military schools, navigation schools, &c., and academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, music, &c. There are two Government normal schools for primary teachers, one at Lierre and the other at Nivelles.—the former having twelve and the latter thirteen professors, with a rector each. The course extends over three years, and during the last year of attendance the pupils are exercised in teaching in the primary schools of the town. There are also seven episcopal normal schools, in which similar branches are taught, except that the principles of the Catholic religion are more particularly inculcated. The chief diocesan nominates the rectors and professors. The course lasts for four years. Besides these there are several private normal schools for males and females, one or more institutions for the training of female teachers by each province, and normal primary sections attached to the middle schools of Bruges, Ghent, Huy, Virton, and Couvin. Bursaries of 200 francs each are annually given by Government to assist poor students attending the normal schools; and students of promise, who have taken diplomas at either of the Government primary normal schools, may be admitted to the normal school of middle instruction at Nivelles. The course here is for two years. There are also for the training of teachers for the superior middle institutions, the normal school of the humanities at Liége, and the normal school of the sciences at Ghent. Candidates for admission must be young men of superior talents, qualifying them to perform creditably the duties of professor, and they must pass certain examinations. The branches taught in both schools extend over three years. In the school at Liége there are fourteen bursaries of 500 francs each, given to the poorer students, the recipients becoming bound to act as professors in one of the middle schools for five years. There are five bursaries of 500 francs in connection with the school at Ghent. There is a military school at Brussels for training officers for the army. The number of scholars in 1873 was 129. The courses are divided into two sections; the one, which extends over two years, is preparatory to the second, which also extends over two years, and is divided into special branches qualifying for the infantry, cavalry, or marines. A school has been established in Lierre for the purpose of educating the sons of the military for the army. The course extends over five years, and the pupils generally enter the army about the age of sixteen. They are placed in the army according to their proficiency, some as sub-officers and corporals, others as common soldiers. The pupils in 1873 were 252. Each regiment has a regimental school for training young men in the army for subalterns, and a number of evening schools for affording the means of education to the soldiery. Attendance at one of these schools is obligatory on all subalterns and corporals whose education is not complete, according to their position. There is at Messines a Royal Institution for the education of daughters of military men who have died or been disabled in the service of their country. They are admitted from seven to fourteen years of age, and remain till their eighteenth year. They are instructed in branches necessary to qualify them as governesses, teachers, domestic servants, &c., and situations are provided for them on leaving. Schools of navigation have been established at Antwerp and Ostend for furnishing properly educated masters for merchant vessels, where instruction is given gratuitously. Certificates of qualifications as master or mate are given by a jury of examiners. There has also recently been formed at Antwerp a superior institute of commerce to afford instruction, theoretical and practical, in the commercial sciences, the course extending over two years. A Government agricultural institute was established at Gembloux in 1860 for affording theoretical and practical instruction in agriculture and kindred subjects. There are seven professors and three assistants, and a demonstrative gardener. The course lasts for three years. Students in 1873, 71. There is a similar institution at Ghent, which in 1873 had 31 students. A school of practical horticulture and arboriculture was established at Vilvorde in 1855, which in 1873 had 29 students; the course is for three years. A similar institution at Gendbrugg has been closed since 1871. There is also a veterinary college at Brussels with, in 1873. 84 students. The course is for four years. The academies and schools of design, painting, sculpture, &c., are divided into three classes :-1. The royal academies of the fine arts, in which painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving are taught in the most efficient manner; 2. Academies of design established in the principal towns, and giving instructions in designing, architecture, and the principles of geometry and perspective drawing; 3. Schools of design established in all the larger towns for instructing young persons and artisans in the elements of designing and architecture. In 1873 there were 76 such academies and schools in the kingdom, having 9966 pupils. The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Antwerp is principally intended to afford gratuitous instruction in painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving, and to propagate and encourage a taste for the fine arts. In 1873 there were 1665 scholars. A competition in one of the branches of the fine arts is annually held in Antwerp, the laureate at which receives a pension of 3500 francs annually for four years, to enable him to perfect himself in his art in Germany, France, and Italy. The second prize is a gold medal of 300 francs. The Royal Academy of the Fine Arts at Brussels is an institution similar to that at Antwerp. Instruction is gratuitous, and the vacancies are filled up by competition. The Royal Musical Conservatory at Brussels is under the direction of the minister of the interior, aided by a cominission of seven members nominated by the king, with the burgomaster of Brussels as honorary president. The instruction is gratuitous, and includes vocal and instrumental music, composition, and the Italian language. The number of scholars in 1873 was 529. There are six bursaries of 250 francs, and ten of 125 francs, in connection with this institution. There is a similar establishment at Liége, with (in 1873) 694 scholars. Music, both vocal and instrumental, is much cultivated in Belgium; and musical schools and societies are established in almost all the principal towns and throughout the country. In 1873 there were, besides those mentioned, 108 musical schools and societies, with 7440 members. A competition in inusical composition takes place every two years at Brussels, the laureate receiving a pension of 3500 francs for four years, to enable him to study in France, Germany, and Italy. The second prize is a gold medal of the value of 300 francs. Belgium possesses a great number of learned societies, as the Royal Medical Academy, the Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and Art, &c. The Royal Medical Academy has its seat at Brussels. It is divided into six sections, and has 36 titular and 18 assistant members, with 24 corresponding and an indefinite number of honorary members. Each of the sections has certain branches of medical science assigned to it. The academy answers any questions that may be proposed to it by the Government, apou matters connected with public hygiene, and makes researches in all subjects connected with or tending to advance medical science. Gold medals are given annually for the best essays on prescribed subjects. It receives an annual grant of 20,000 francs from the state. The Royal Academy of Science, Literature, and Art also has its seat at Brussels. It is divided into three classes, for the sciences, literature, and the fine arts; the first two are each subdivided into two sections, and the last into branches, for painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and music. Each class is composed of 30 members, 50 foreign associates, and not more than ten native correspondents. Each class proposes annually certain subjects for essays, to which gold medals of the value of 600 francs are adjudged. The academy receives an annual grant of 40,000 franes from the state. Connected with this academy is a royal commission of history for the purpose of searching for and editing .old chronicles and documents tending to throw light upon the early history of the country. There has also just (1875) been instituted by the king a prize of | 25,000 francs (£1000) to be given annually for the best work published on a subject previously announced of interest to Belgium. Every fourth year the competition is to be open to foreigners. There is a Government inspector-general of science, literature, and art, who has the general superintendence of that department, under the minister of the interior. Under him are two administrative boards, the one for literature and science, and the other for the fine arts. The Royal Observatory for astronomical and meteorological observations is under the management of a director and three assistants. In the observatory are instruments specially provided by Government for the use of young men desirous of making meteorological or astronomical observations. The Royal Museum of Brussels, for the reception of objects in natural history belonging to the state, is under the direction of a council of five members appointed by the king. There is also a museum of industry, containing models and plans of machines used in arts, manufactures, and agriculture. Annexed to this museum is a school where instruction is given gratuitously in the construction of such machines. It possesses a chemical laboratory, library, &c. There is also a royal museum of war instruments at Brussels, and in 1870 a royal botanic garden was laid out for aiding in the study of botany and horticulture. The royal museum of painting and sculpture is under the direction of a commission, composed of a president and six members nominated by the king, and charged with the collection of works of ancient and modern masters for the museum. A triennial exhibition of works of living artists, Belgian and foreign, in painting, sculpture, engraving, architecture, and lithography, is held at Brussels. There are similar exhibitions held in Artwerp, Ghent, Liége, Bruges, &c. The geographical establishment at Brussels has a considerable collection of books and maps, a garden, a herbarium, collections of rocks, lava, fossils, &c. Besides the libraries belonging to different societies, associations, &c., there are a number of public libraries in Belgium. The principal of these is the royal library of Brussels. It contained in 1871 about 301,500 volumes, 22,221 manuscripts, 53,556 engravings, and 19,517 medals and coins. This is the only library that receives copies of copyright works. The public library of Ghent is connected with the university. It has 80,000 volumes and 600 manuscripts, besides pamphlets, &c. The Liége public library has 68,000 volumes, about 26,000 pamphlets, and 430. manuscripts. The public library of the Louvain university is the most ancient in Belgium, and is particularly rich in works of ancient history, theology, and literature, including Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Oriental. Theso libraries are open daily for consultation, and in almost all of them volumes are lent out at the discretion of the con servators. The archives of Belgium contains great number of interesting and valuable documents connected with the history of the country. These are carefully preserved, classified, and catalogued. The general archives of the kingdom at Brussels contain upwards of 100,000 documents, and the archives of Antwerp upwards of 70,000. Those at Bruges, Ghent, Liége, Mons, Namur, Tournay, Hasselt, aud Arlon are ancient and important. The archives of the city of Bruges, at one time the grand commercial entrepôt of Europe, contain a number of valuable papers bearing upon the events of which this city was the theatre in the Middle Ages. Unfortunately, they do not go further back than 1280, the previous documents having been all destroyed by an extensive fire in that year. The benevolent and charitable institutions of Belgium are numerous and open to all. The duty of supporting III. 66 them falls in the first instance upon the commune, afterwards upon the province, and finally, in case of necessity, upon the state. They are divided into three classes :-(1.) Those affording assistance or an asylum to the poor in case of age, infirmity, disease, want of work, &c., including dispensaries, foundling and maternity hospitals, deaf-mute and blind institutions, &c.; (2.) Those more particularly designed for the prevention and suppression of vagabondage and beggary, as depôts of mendicity and reform schools; and.(3.) Those specially intended to foster a spirit of independence and foresight among the working classes, as savings-banks, and assurance and mutual assistance societies. Every town of importance and many of the rural communes have hospitals for the aged, infirm, and indigent. Asylums for incurables are also numerous, but much less so than the former. Farm hospitals have been established in the rural communes of the two Flanders, where the inmates contribute by work to their own maintenance. They form small agricultural colonies of old people and children, mutually assisting each other. The products of the farms generally suffice for their maintenance. Foundling hospitals are established in Antwerp, Brussels, Louvain, Bruges, Ostend, &c. The children generally remain only for a short time in the hospitals. They are pensioned out to inhabitants of the rural communes till their twelfth year, at which period the wardship of the hospital terminates. Inspectors are appointed to visit the children quarterly, to report upon their physical condition, see that they are attending school, &c. There are maternity hospitals at Brussels, Louvain, Ghent, Liége, Bruges, Nieuport, anl Tournay, in several of which courses of midwifery are given. Maternity societies for aiding females with money, medicine, &c., are formed in many of the towns. There are a number of lunatic asylums, which in 1873 had in all 6801 patients, of whom 5024 were paupers. A colony of lunatics has been formed in the commune of Gheel, province of Antwerp, where, under the direction of a permanent committee, they are pensioned out among the inhabitants, and generally employed in agricultural labours. There are also a number of institutions for the education of the deaf and dumb and the blind. To prevent the misery, and frequently the crime, arising from the want of employment among the working classes, charity workshops have been established in Ghent, Liége, and other towns. These are accessible to all workmen without employment and in poor circumstances. The able-bodied are paid according to their work, and the aged and infirm according to their necessities. The workshops of apprenticeship and improvement are intended not only to supply work to the unemployed, but principally to initiate the people in the exercise of new or improved branches of industry, and to instruct the young men in some trade or profession by which they may be able to gain an honest livelihood. They have been found of great benefit to many of the poorer classes who would otherwise have been brought up as vagrants and beggars. The apprenticeship generally lasts from four to six months. Similar to these are the manufacturing schools, intended principally for girls, where they are employed in the manufacture of lace, &c. These are supported partly by the state and partly by the province and commune, but many of them are private. In 1872 there were of these institutions-29 communal, 144 private but subject to inspection, and 294 nort-inspected. The total number of persons was 26,739, of whom 1067 were in communal establishments, 9649 private inspected, and 16,023 non-inspected; 25,565 were females and 1174 males. There are three depôts of mendicity or workhouses in the kingdom, at Bruges, Hoogstraeten, and Reckheim. In 1873 they contained 1819 persons. A reform school was founded in Ruysselede in 1848 for male vagrants and mendicants under eighteen years of age. It contains about 500 members, employed in cultivating a large farm of 128 hectares. At a short distance is a similar institution for 400 girls and infants, between two and seven years of age. There is also a similar school for girls and infants at Beernem. In each commune is a bureau de bienfaisance, for assisting the poor with money, food, clothing, &c., and, where there are no hospitals, providing them with medical attendance and medicines. It also contributes to the maintenance and education of poor children, foundlings, deaf-mutes, and lunatics. There are also Monts de Piété, or charitable institutions for lending money to the poor upon the security of pledges, in twenty of the larger towns. Caisses de prévoyance, both general and special, and mutual aid societies-to succour the members in sickness, pay their funeral expenses, and aid their families are numerous. The judicial system of Belgium consists of courts and tribunals of various kinds, as the court of cassation, the courts of appeal, and of assize, tribunals of primary instance, of commerce, &c. The court of cassation or annulment sits at Brussels, and is divided into two chambers, the one for civil and the other for criminal matters. It is composed of a president-general, a president of the chamber, and fifteen councillors. It decides upon appeals against judgments pronounced in the other courts and tribunals in contravention of legal forms. There are three courts of appeal: one at Brussels, for the provinces of Antwerp, Brabant, and Hainault; another at Ghent, for the two Flanders; and a third at Liége, for Liége, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Namur.. In the capital of each province is a court of assize, composed of a councillor, deputed from one of the courts of appeal, who presides, and two judges chosen from among the presidents and judges of the primary tribunal, where the court is held. Crimes, graver misdemeanours, political offences, and abuses of the press are judged by the courts of assize. judiciary arrondissement is a tribunal of primary instance, judging in misdemeanours belonging to the correctional police, in civil matters, and in commercial affairs where there is no commercial tribunal. The number of judges varies from three to ten in each tribunal Tribunals of commerce are established by law in several principal towns. They judge definitively in civil matters of not more than 2000 francs, but above that sum their decisions are subject to appeal, as in the tribunals of primary instance. In several of the manufacturing towns are councils of prud hommes, composed of master tradesmen and workmen. They decide in all questions and disputes arising between masters and workmen. For all criminal and political cases, as well as offences of the press, trial by jury is established. The jury is composed of twelve persons chosen by lot from a leet of thirty. Justices of the peace and judges of the tribunals are chosen directly by the king. The councillors of each court of appeal, and the presidents and vice-presidents of the tribunals of primary instance in its district, are chosen by the king from two double lists of candidates, the one presented by the court of appeal, and the other by the provincial council. The councillors of the court of cassation are named by the king from two double lists, the one presented by the senate, and the other by the court of cassation. The judges are appointed for life, and cannot be suspended or deposed but by a judgment. They cannot hold any salaried office under the Government, or, at least, must perform the duties of it gratuitously. The duties of public minister at the court of cassation are exercised by a procurator-general, and two advocates In each |