elevation as they extend towards the E. These mountains, except the loftier summits, are, for the most part, covered with thick forests of pine, oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, and other trees. The inferior ranges seem to be principally composed of Secondary limestone, which, at a greater elevation, is succeeded by micaceous schist and quartz-rock; and the higher chains are said to consist of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, and clay-slate. The Secondary and Tertiary formations are frequently disturbed and upraised by trap-rocks of comparatively modern date. Lead iron copper, antimony, sulphur, and rock-salt occur

A

frequently; and in the Marocco portion of the range gold and silver are said to exist. In the Algerian division are mines of copper, lead, silver, and antimony. The lion, hyena, boar, and bear are common throughout the mountains. None of the rivers which take their rise in the system are of any great importance. The Tafilet is absorbed in the sands; the Tensift and Draa flow into the Atlantic; and about five or six find their way to the Mediterranean. Dr Hooker has explored the botany of many parts of the range, and the travels of Rohlfs have added largely to our general knowledge of it.

TMOSPHERE is the name applied to the invisible elastic envelope which surrounds the earth, the gaseous matter of which it is composed being usually distinguished by the name of air. Storms and weather generally, solar and terrestrial radiation, the disintegration of rocks, animal and vegetable life, twilight, and the propagation of sound, are some of the more striking phenomena which are either to a large extent or altogether dependent on the atmosphere. That air possesses weight may be shown by the simple experiment of taking a hollow globe filled with air and weighing it; then removing the contained air by means of an air-pump, and again weighing the globe, when it will be found to weigh less than at first. The difference of the two results is the weight of the air which has been removed. From Regnault's experiments, 100 cubic inches of dry air, or air containing no aqueous vapour, under a pressure of 30 English inches of mercury, and at a temperature of 60° Fahr., weigh 31-03529 grains; and since 100 cubic inches of distilled water at the same pressure and temperature weigh 25,252 grains, it follows that air is 813.67 times lighter than water.

Air as an elastic fluid exerts pressure upon the earth or any substance on which it rests, the action of a boy's sucker and of a water-pump being familiar instances showing the pressure of the atmosphere. When air is removed from a water-pump, the water rises in the pump only to a certain height; for as soon as the water has risen to such a height that the weight of the column of water in the pump above the level of the surface of the water in the well just balances the pressure exerted by the atmosphere on the surface of the well, it ceases to rise. If the pressure of the atmosphere be increased, the water will rise higher in the pump; but if diminished, the level of the water will sink. The height to which the water rises within the pump thus varies with the pressure of the atmosphere, the height being generally about 34 feet. Since a given volume of mercury weighed in vacuo at a temperature of 62° Fahr. is 13-569 times heavier than the same volume of water, it follows that a column of mercury will rise in vacuo to a height 13.569 times less than a column of water, or about 30 inches. If we suppose, then, the height of the mercurial column to be 30 inches, which is probably near the average height of the barometer at sea-level, and its base equal to a square inch, it will contain 30 cubic inches of mercury; and since one cubic inch of mercury contains 3426-7 grains, the weight of 30 cubic inches will be nearly 14-7304 avoirdupois. Thus the pressure of the atmosphere is generally, at least in these latitudes, at sea-level equal to 14-7304 b on each square inch of the earth's surface. Sir John Herschel has calculated that the total weight of an atmosphere averaging 30 inches of pressure is about 11 trillions of pounds; and that, making allowance for the space occupied by the land above the sea, the mass of such an atmosphere is about Todo part of that of the earth itself. This enormous

pressure is exerted on the human frame in common with all objects on the earth's surface, and it is calculated that a man of the ordinary size sustains a pressure of about 14 tons; but as the pressure is exerted equally in all direc tions, and permeates the whole body, no inconvenience arises in consequence of it.

A pressure agreeing approximately with the average atmospheric pressure at sea-level is often used as a unit of pressure. This unit is called an atmosphere, and is employed in measuring pressures in steam-engines and boilers. The value of this unit which has been adopted, in the metrical system, is the pressure of 760 millimètres (29-922 Eng. inches) of the mercurial column at 0° C. (32° Fahr.) at Paris, which amounts in that latitude to 1.033 kilogrammes on the square centimètre. In the English system, an atmosphere is the pressure due to 29.905 inches of the mercurial column at 32° Fahr. at London, amounting there to nearly 142 b weight on the square inch. The latter atmosphere is thus 0.99968 of that of the metrical system.

As regards the distribution of atmospheric pressure over the globe, there was little beyond conjecture, drawn from theoretical considerations and for the most part erroneous, till the publication in 1868 of Buchan's memoir "On the Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere and the Prevailing Winds over the Globe."1 By the monthly isobaric charts and copious tables which accompanied the memoir, this important physical problem was first approximately solved. Since then the British Admiralty has published charts showing the mean pressure of the atmosphere over the ocean. The more important general conclusions regarding the geographical distribution of atmospheric pressure are the following :

There are two regions of high pressure, the one north and the other south of the equator, passing completely round the globe as broad belts of high pressure. They enclose between them the low pressure of tropical regions, through the centre of which runs a narrower belt of still lower pressure, towards which the north and south trades blow. The southern belt of high pressure lies nearly parallel to the equator, and is of nearly uniform breadth throughout; but the belt north of the equator has a very irregular outline, and great differences in its breadth and in its inclination to the equator,-these irregularities being due to the unequal distribution of land and water in the northern hemisphere. Taking a broad view of the subject, there are only three regions of low pressure,-one round each pole, bounded by or contained within the belts of high pressure just referred to, and the equatorial belt of low pressure. The most remarkable of these, in so far as yet known, is the region of low pressure surrounding the south pole, which appears to remain pretty constant 1 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxv. p. 575.

2 Physical Charts of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans, Lond. 1872.

during the whole year. The depression round the north pole is divided into two distinct centres, at each of which here is a diminution of pressure greatly lower than the average north polar depression. These two centres lie in the north of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans respectively. The distribution of pressure in the different months of the year differs widely from the annual average, particularly in January and July, the two extreme months. In January the highest pressures are over the continents of the northern hemisphere, and the larger the continental mass the greater the pressure,-and the lowest pressures are over the northern portions of the Atlantic and Pacific, South America and South Africa, and the Antarctic Ocean. In the centre of Asia the mean pressure of the atmosphere in this month is fully 30-400 inches, whereas in the North Atlantic, round Iceland, it is only 29-340 inches, or upwards of an inch lower than in Central Asia. The area of high barometer is continued westwards through Central and Southern Europe, the North Atlantic between 5° and 45° N. lat., North America, except the north and north-west, and the Pacific for some distance on either side of 15° N. lat. It is thus an exaggerated form of the high belt of annual mean pressure, spreading, however, over a much greater breadth in North America, and a still greater breadth in Asia.

In July, on the other hand, the mean pressure of Central Asia is only 29.468 inches, or nearly an inch lower than during January; or, putting this striking result in other words, about a thirtieth of the pressure of the atmosphere is removed from this region during the hottest months of the year as compared with the winter season. The lowest pressures of the northern hemisphere are now distributed over the continents, and the larger the continental mass the greater is the depression. At the same time, the highest are over the ocean between 50° N. and 50° S. lat., particularly over the North Atlantic and the North Pacific between 25° and 40° N. lat., and in the Southern hemisphere over the belt of high mean annual pressure, which in this month reaches its maximum height. Pressure is high in South Africa and in Australia, just as in the winter of the northern hemisphere pressures are high over the continents.

Over the ocean, if we except the higher latitudes, atmospheric pressure is more regular throughout the year than over the land. In the ocean to westwards of each of the continents there occurs at all seasons an area of high pressure, from 0.10 inch to 0.30 inch higher than what prevails on the coast westward of which it lies. The distance of these spaces of high pressure is generally about 30° of longitude; and their longitudinal axes lie, roughly speaking, about the zones of the tropics. The maximum is reached during the winter months, and these areas of high pressure are most prominently marked west of those continents which have the greatest breadth in 30° lat.; and the steepest barometric gradients are on their eastern sides. It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the importance of these regions of high and low mean pressures, from their intimate bearing on atmospheric physics, but more particularly from their vital connection with prevailing winds and the general circulation of the atmosphere. This relation will be apprehended when it is considered that winds are simply the flowing away of the air from regions where there is a surplus (regions of high pressure) to where there is a deficiency of air (regions of low pressure). Everywhere over the globe this transference takes place in strict accordance with Buys-Ballot's "Law of the Winds," which may be thus expressed:-The wind neither blows round the space of lowest pressure in circles returning on themselves, nor does it blow directly toward that space; but it takes a direction intermediate, approaching, however, more

nearly to the direction and course of circular curves than of radii to a centre. More exactly, the angle is not a right angle, but from 45° to 80°. Keeping this relation between wind and the distribution of pressure in mind, the isobaric lines give the proximate causes of the prevailing winds over the globe, and through these the prominent features of climates. As regards the ocean, the prevailing winds indicate the direction of the drift-currents and other surface-currents, and thereby the anomalous distribution of the temperature of the sea as seen in the Chili, Guinea, and other ocean currents, and the peculiarly marked climates of the coasts past which these currents flow, are explained; for observations have now proved that the prevailing winds and surface-currents of all oceans are all but absolutely coincident.

As regards the annual march of pressure through the months of the year, curves representing it for the different regions of the earth differ from each other in every conceivable way. It is only when the results are set down in their proper places on charts of the globe that the subject can be well understood. When thus dealt with, many of the results are characterised by great beauty and simplicity. Thus, of all influences which determine the barometric fluctuation through the months, the most important are the temperature, and through the temperature the humidity. Comparing, then, the average pressure in January with that in July, which two months give the greatest possible contrasts of temperature, the following is the broad result :

The January exceeds the July pressure over the whole of Asia except Kamtchatka and the extreme north-east, the greatest excess being near the centre of the continent; over Europe to south and east of a line drawn from the White Sea south-westward to the Naze, thence southward to the mouth of the Weser, then to Tours, Bordeaux, and after passing through the north of Spain, out to sea at Coruña; over North America, except the north-east and north-west. On the other hand, the July exceeds the January pressure generally over the whole of the southern hemisphere, over the northern part of the North Atlantic and regions immediately adjoining (the excess amounting in Iceland to 0.397 inch), and over the northern part of the North Pacific and surrounding regions. Thus the pressure which is so largely removed from the Old and New Continents of the northern hemisphere in July is transferred, partly to the southern hemisphere, and partly to the northern portions of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Atmospheric pressure is more uniformly distributed over the globe in April and October than in any of the other months. In May and November, being the months immediately following, occur the great annual rise and fall of temperature; and since these rapid changes take place at very different rates, according to the relative distribution of land and water in each region, a comparison of the geographical distribution of May with that for the year brings out in strong relief the more prominent causes which influence climate, and some of the more striking results of these causes. This comparison shows a diminution of pressure in May over tropical and sub-tropical regions, including nearly the whole of Asia, the southern half of Europe, and the United States. An excess prevails over North America to the north of the Lakes, over Arctic America, Greenland, the British Isles, and to the north of a line passing through the English Channel in a northeasterly direction to the Arctic Sea, The excess in the southern hemisphere includes the southern half of south America and of Africa, the whole of Australia, and adjacent parts of the ocean. The influence of the land of the southern hemisphere, which in this month is colder thar the surrounding seas, brings about an excess of pressure; on the other hand, the influence of land over those regions

which are more immediately under the sun brings about a lower pressure, interesting examples of which occur in India, the Malayan Archipelago, and the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas. In many cases the lines of pressure follow more or less closely the contours of the coasts. Thus the diminution is greater over Italy and Turkey than over the Adriatic and Black Seas. The greatest diminution occurs in Central Asia, where it exceeds 0-200 inch, and the greatest excess round Iceland, where it exceeds 0-200 inch. It is to the position of Great Britain, with reference to the deficiency of pressure on the one hand and the excess on the other, that the general prevalence of east winds at this season is due. These easterly winds prevail over the whole of Northern Europe, as far south as a line drawn from Madrid and passing in a north-easterly direction through Geneva, Munich, &c. To the south of this line the diminution of pressure is less, and over this region the winds which are in excess are not easterly, but southerly. Crossing the Mediterranean, and advancing on Africa, we approach another region of lower pressure, towards which easterly and north-easterly winds again acquire the ascendency, as at Malta, Algeria, &c.

This, in many cases great, variation of the pressure in the different months of the year must be kept carefully in view in deducing heights of places from observations made by travellers of the pressure of atmosphere, by the barometer or the temperature of boiling water. In reducing the observations, it is necessary to assume a sealevel pressure if the place is at a considerable distance from any meteorological observatory. Previous to the publication of Buchan's Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere, it appears that a mean sea-level pressure of 29.92 or 30-00 inches was in such cases universally assumed. The mean pressure at Barnaul, Siberia, being 29.536 inches in July, 30-293 inches in January, and 29-954 inches for the year, it follows that, by the former method of calculating the heights, observations made in January to ascertain the height of Lake Balkash would make the lake 350 feet too high, and observations made in July would make it 330 feet too low, the difference of the two observations, each set being supposed to be made under the most favourable circumstances, and with the greatest accuracy, being 680 feet. This illustration will serve to account for many of the discrepancies met with in books regarding the heights of mountains and plateaus

Of the periodical variations of atmospheric pressure, the most marked is the daily variation, which in tropical and sub-tropical regions is one of the most regular of recurring phenomena. In higher latitudes the diurnal oscillation is masked by the frequent fluctuations to which the pressure is subjected. If, however, hourly observations be regularly made for some time, the hourly oscillation will become apparent. The results show two maxima occurring from 9 to 11 A.M. and 9 to 11 P.M., and two minima occurring from 3 to 6 A.M. and 3 to 6 P.M. The following are the ex. treme variations for January, April, July, and October from the daily mean pressure at Calcutta, deduced from the observations made during six years, viz., 1857-62:

These two illustrations may be regarded as typical, to a large extent, of the diurnal barometric oscillations in tropical and temperate regions. At Calcutta the amounts are large, and the dates of the occurrence of the maxima and minima very regular from 3 to 4 and 9 to 10 A.M. and P.M. respectively. On the other hand, the oscillations at Vienna are much smaller and more variable in amount, and the dates of occurrence of the critical phases take place through a wider interval, viz., from 3 to 6 and 9 to 11 A.M. and P.M. respectively.

Though the diurnal barometric oscillations are among the best-marked of meteorological phenomena, at least in tropical and sub-tropical regions, yet none of these phenomena, except perhaps the electrical, could be named respecting whose geographical distribution so little is really known, whether as regards the amount of variation, the hour of occurrence of the critical phases, or, particularly, the physical causes on which the observed differences depend. This arises chiefly from the want of a sufficient number of ascertained facts; and to remedy this deficiency, observations have, in the preparation of this present article, been collected and calculated from upwards of 250 places in different parts of the globe, and the data set down on charts. The chief results of this inquiry are the following, attention being entirely confined to the chief oscillation, viz., that occurring from the A.M. maximum to the P.M. minimum.

The A.M. Maximum-In January this oceurs from 9 to 10 in tropical and temperate regions as far as 50° N. lat.; in higher latitudes the time of occurrence varies from 8 A.M. to noon. In July it occurs from 9 to 10 everywhere only as far as about 40° N. lat.; the time at Tiflis (41° 42′ N. lat.) being between 7 and 8 A.M. In higher latitudes the time varies from 8 to 11 A.M., the last hour being general in,north-western Europe.

The P.M. Minimum.-In January this occurs from 3 to 4 P.M. nearly everywhere over the globe, a few exceptions occurring in north-western Europe, the extremes being 2 P.M. at Utrecht and 6 P.M. at St Petersburg. It is quite different in July, when the time from 3 to 4 P.M. is regularly kept as far north as about 40° N. lat. In higher latitudes the hour is very generally 5, but at some places it is as early as 4 P.M., and at others as late as 6 P.M.

In the northern hemisphere, in summer, the afternoon minimum falls to a greater extent below the mean of the day than the forenoon maximum rises above it, at 82 per cent. of the stations; but in winter the percentage is only 61. In the southern hemisphere the same relation is observed in the summer and winter months, thus showing that in the summer of both hemispheres the influence of the sun tends to lower the minimum at 3 to 4 P.M. to a greater extent than to raise the 9 to 10 A.M. maximum.

Decrease between Morning Maximum and Afternoon Minimum.-Of the four daily oscillations, this is the most important. When the amounts at different places are entered on charts of the globe, it is seen that the amplitude of this fluctuation is, speaking generally, greatest in the tropics, diminishing as we advance into higher latitudes; greater over the land than over the sea, increasing greatly on proceeding inlaud; nearly always greater with a dry than with a moist atmosphere; and generaily, but by no means always, it is greatest in the month of highest