ployer, who was pleased to have a Government inquiry. He could not understand the point in the paper to the effect that in Russia the company supplied the "Government" engineer. Possibly the Government supplied that official, and the company paid him. In conclusion, Professor Foster said he endorsed all Mr. Head had said about the welcome the Englishman received from the Russian when he visited the latter. Any Englishman going to Russia, bent on real business, having the idea of developing the wonderful resources of the country, was sure to be received heartily. In his own case, whether he met Ministers at St. Petersburg, or Government authorities at Tiflis and other places, he was warmly received.

Sir JOHN THORNYCROFT, F.R.S., said he was sorry he was quite unfamiliar with engineering works in Russia, but he felt they had heard a paper on a most interesting subject. One could only regret that the apportionment of the land to the villagers, instead of being to their advantage, apparently seemed to lead to their being anchored in one place, which he considered was not conducive to the development of the country.

Mr. L. A. RAFFALOVICH said that for many years he had been of opinion that if commercial and financial connections between the two countries had been more proceeded with, they would have led to great mutual advantage, and, most probably, to better political understanding. He was reminded of this by the tale of Charles Lamb in reference to the meeting of two friends. One asked the other, "What do you think of Jones?" "Oh I hate him," was the reply. "Do you know himłod asked the first. "No, and that is why I hate him. He thought there was much of that in the relations between the two countries. The English and the Russians did not know each other sufficiently. Referring to protective tariffs, he said they certainly had the tendency to develop industries at a much quicker rate than where there were no such tariffs. It was only since the tariff of 1901, in Russia, which showed the firm resolve of the Government to go on and enable capitalists and private enterprises to start, knowing that they could go on undisturbed for a long series of years, that things had improved there so greatly.

As to the remark of Professor Foster about the Kertch iron ore, he might say that probably the reason why the reader of the paper did not dwell upon that was because of the poorness of that ore, which did not contain more than from 20 to 22 per cent. of iron.

Mr. BAYLEY HODGETTS said there was one point which he might be permitted to raise. When Mr. Head touched upon the conditions of labour in the Russian agricultural districts he pointed out the dis

advantage of the communal system. He thought, however, that gentleman had overlooked the fact that when the Russian peasant found that the land did not yield him sufficient revenue to pay the taxes which he knew he was expected to pay, he was not free to leave his village, even though he might be prepared to abandon his land. Every member of the village commune was practically responsible for the whole of the village taxes, and therefore it was found to be very inconvenient to allow a wealthy member of a village to leave just when the tax collector was coming round. A point which he considered Mr. Head had not sufficiently accentuated was that the industrial development of Russia was artificial. The probability was that this particular industry, if it was to continue at all, must continue to be artificial for a very long period; for the simple reason that anything produced anywhere is bound to be sold. As he pointed out, the only purchaser in Russia of large industrial produce was the Russian Government itself. Mr. Head, however, omitted to say that the artificial fostering of the industries by the Government was not likely to benefit those industries. Both Germany and America had developed and become wealthy through protective and artificial measures; but those countries were remarkable for the number of their towns, while Russia was remarkable for the scarcity of towns. With the exception of St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, and one or two other cities, there were really very few large towns where one would get a community of so high a grade of civilization as to require certain products of industry on a large scale. He feared it would be a great many years before Russia would become a really industrial country, especially as at present As the Government was the principal purchaser of the Russian peasant was said to be overtaxed. that the more the Government purchased the more the industrial products of large factories it followed the peasant had to be taxed in order to pay for those purchases. In other words, the industrialism of Russia became really a burden to the peasant instead of a benefit. Referring to the treelessness of the country, the speaker said he considered the Government of Russia would be be efiting the country much more if it devoted some of the large sums which it was spending for other purposes to the afforestation of the country. He felt sure that would mean a great change in the climate, and with that there would be a great increase in Russia's prosperity.

Mr. E. A. CAZALET, referring to the remarks of the author that a considerable amount of capital had been launched in Russian industries by Belgium and France, said that if a little more light were thrown upon that point, it would be both useful and instructive. It was not a question of putting things right merely by getting more capital from abroad for Russia. There must surely be other means. If it was only a

the percentage of ash, the particular coke he spoke of was the Bellair. In the cement works there was

no apparatus to collect the dust. As to washing the ores dry and washing with water, he had probably not been rightly understood. He intended his hearers to understand that that from one certain district was treated dry, and that from another place was washed with water. The shaft of the manganese mine to which he had alluded was indeed very small; in fact, he had to descend in a bucket. The smallness of the rainfall, he contended, was due to the treelessness of the country and not the treelessness to the smallness of the rainfall. He regretted to say that the laws for preventing the reckless cutting down of trees had been very lax. The result was that the winds carried the moisture across the territory instead of depositing it. As to actions at the mines and Government inspections, in Russia there was a great deal of Government interference. Professor Foster was correct in assuming that the companies had to pay the official nominated by the Government. That official was practically a paid spy. His experience with reference to the English and Russian nations was that there was a kind of attraction and sympathy between them which there was not between Englishmen and other nationalities. While they hated each other as a nation they liked each other as individuals. Mr. Hodgetts spoke about the Government purchases meaning an increased burden to the peasant. So it did, but his suggestion was that the Russian Government should borrow. One way of increasing the prosperity of that country would be the increase of the middle classes. They might have to wait a long time before that came about but if that class only did increase, it would mean the increase of enterprise and energy, the Government would no longer be the only customer, but there would be general prosperity. In conclusion, Mr. Head drew attention to the following extract from a report of the Russian Collieries Company, Limited, with whom the chairman that evening, Mr. Hubbard, was connected :-"The estimated production of iron ore in 1903 is 187,861,800 poods, and of flux 33,572,400 poods. In the iron producing district of South Russia there are 19 ironworks owning 56 blast furnaces, of which, in the current November, 25 are in blast, 2 are in course of erection, 12 are undergoing repairs, and 17 are temporarily standing idle. The estimated production of pig iron during 1903 amounts to 86,100,000 poods; the quantity required for conversion into

blooms, 72,320,000 poods, for iron and steel merchant bars 62,120,000 poods, and for iron and other metallurgical purposes 12,124,000 poods. The statistical survey of the mining and metallurgical industries of South Russia points to a continuation of the existing depression of trade in these industries for some time to come. There is one complaint which is common to these industries, namely the great divergence between supply and demand, the former greatly exceeding the latter. The estimated supply of coal is less than the producing power of the mines by 27 per cent., and the demand only amounts to 63 per cent. of the estimated supply; the estimated production of pig iron is only 52 per cent. of the producing power of the blast furnaces. It must also be borne in mind that the stocks of coal at the beginning of 1903 will amount to 40,000,000 poods, and the stocks of pig iron to 12,150,000 poods. These statistics throw an unfavourable light on the prospects for 1903, and point to the urgent necessity of firm measures being adopted by the Congress of the coal and iron trades, with a view to establishing a more. healthy condition of affairs and, as far as possible, to render the demand more consistent with the estimated. supply."

The CHAIRMAN moved a hearty vote of thanks to Mr. Head. He could endorse all that had been said about the necessity for a better understanding between the English and Russian nations, and could' bear testimony to the good fellowship which nearly always existed between them. He advocated the extension of Russian railways, and he differed from Mr. Head when he said that those rallways were built entirely with strategic views. If they saw the network of railways which now intersected the Donetz coalfields, they would feel convinced they were not entirely for strategic purposes. In con-' clusion, the Chairman said there was every desire to develop Russia and bring it forward in the great race. among nations as speedily as possible.

frontier station. By next year the entire route from Europe to the Pacific will be open to the public service. Trains, indeed, have already run through to Wladiwostock and Port Arthur. In August of this year, according to official telegrams, Prince Komatsu and suite accomplished the whole journey from Moscow to Port Arthur by a special through train in just short of 14 days. Hitherto, however, traffic across the Manchurian section has been mainly for official purposes and favoured passengers. As regards the one break in the through route to the Far East, the short stretch round the southern bend of Lake Baikal is to be ready by January 1, 1905.

It is intended that within the near future passengers may be able to reach Dalni in 18 days, Peking in 19 days, and Chinese or Japanese ports in 20 to 21 days, from Central European towns, counting two to three days from the latter to the western frontiers of European Russia. While by the Suez route the journey from London to Shanghai, Nagasaki, or Yokohama, takes 34 to 37 days, and costs r. 700 to r. 780 1st class, via the Siberian rail, it will be covered in 18 to 20 days, at a cost of from r. 350 to r. 390, while later both time and expense may be further shortened. The Moscow-Zlatoust-Samara line is the only main one connecting European Russia with the Siberian Railway.

Prospects.-Russians, apart from its political or strategical aspects, look rather to its future potentialities (1) as the connecting medium between their new Far Eastern possessions and the heart of Russia, and as another outlet to the ocean; (2) as the means of facilitating and furthering direct trade in the future with China and Japan; (3) as a great transit route for passengers, goods, and mails between west and east, and vice versâ; and (4) as the instrument for the colonisation and opening up of Siberia. As regards the latter, the railway has rather to create than to carry a traffic.

The immigration of peasantry from European Russia to Siberia and the Far East seems for the present to have reached its culminating point in 1899. It has risen from a total of 61,435 in 1893 to 223,981 in 1899. In 1900 the number was 219,000, and last year 128,131. Especially noticeable is the increased number of emigrants who returned last year to European Russia, chiefly under the influence of the bad harvests of 1900 and 1901 in many Siberian districts. Probably, too, the best arable and more accessible plots of land had been already apportioned to their predecessors in this movement. Whatever the reason, 55,233 re-entered Russia, including 31,330 actual emigrants, 18,019 "khodoks," or pioneer emigrants, sent out ahead to reconnoitre on behalf of groups of would-be settlers, and 5,884 peasant labourers returning from temporary work. Of the 18,019 pioneer emigrants who returned, 13,647 had come to no arrangements.

The gold and other mineral industries, although the former at least has shown little progress of late, may be developed by the wider opportunities now opening,

and by the greater accessibility to modern mechanism and methods generally. Nor, of course, can Siberia do otherwise than benefit from its intermediate position in the international through traffic that is bound to follow.

Working Expenses.-The working expenses of the line in 1899 are taken at r.5,000 per verst, or, if the Manchurian section be now included, at r.6,000. In all, taking the length at 7,792 versts, the approximate working expenditure would amount to r.47,000,000 a year, not including interest on capital, &c. To cover expenses the receipts should reach about r.80,000,000, which would require the carriage of 600,000,000 pouds of goods annually at the existing high tariffs, or, merely to cover working expenses, 370,000,000 pouds. The gross receipts on the Siberian line proper (CheliabinskIrkutsk) in 1901, including passenger traffic, were r.15,259,854, against r.13,838,577 in 1900, or r.4869 per verst in 1901, against r.4,415 per verst in 1900. On the Trans-Baikal line they amounted in 1901 to r.4,178,377, against r.2,116,649 in 1900, or r.3,568 per verst in 1901, against r.3,863 per verst in 1900. With regard to the traffic possibilities of the future it is early as yet to speak with any definiteness. Mr. Selikhoff, the Assistant Chief of the Commercial Section of the Siberian Railway, from calculations set forth in detail, estimates the minimum goods traffic of the Siberian and Trans-Baikal lines within the near future at 190,co0,000 pouds (3,c62,990 tons), or, including the Manchurian section, 300,000,000 pouds (4,836,300 tons). The capacities of this great through thoroughfare as the world's carrier east and west can be, however, under present conditions at least, but roughly and indefinitely estimated. It is safe to say that the line is not at present, and may not be for years yet, in a position to cope with anything like the possibilities and requirements that the future may reveal or exact. Russo-Siberian traffic alone, pending the population and development of the country, can influence but little the scale of cost and gain. To what extent the railway will realise expectations in international traffic the near future should assist in forming an estimate. Trade circles are still feeling their way, and rival routes striving to maintain their former supremacy. Cheap and cumbrous commodities can hardly bear the charge of so prolonged a land journey. The sea will probably hold its own in the carriage of all but valuable cargoes, perishable articles, and goods deliverable by fixed date. But hopes, too, are placed on passenger and mail traffic, to meet which, in any thing like the proportions expected, the entire accommodation and arrangements would have to be considerably extended.

Should expectations be realised, this single track will have to bear the immigration movement, the internal circulation of Siberia itself, the possibilities called forth by the opening out of the dormant resources of the country, and the international through-traffic in passengers, mails, and goods, not to mention the claims of official and military necessities.

This is in addition to its present goods traffic to and from Russia. New feeding lines too, such as the St. Petersburg-Vologda-Viatka Railway now building, must in time pour an additional burden on to the carriage capacity of the main route. With, on the one side, the resources and enterprise of Europe, and on the other the teeming populations of the East, and midway an undeveloped expanse surpassing in extent the whole superficies of Europe, but which can be traversed in 10 or 12 days, it would be difficult to over-estimate the future that lies before this masterful undertaking. That future may be somewhat distant yet, as at present the railway is ahead of the country it serves, which needs first peopling and then developing.

International Maus.-No train accommodation is yet provided for the international mail transit traffic the new route is expected to attract. From detailed calculations, worked out to moderate and minimum figures from postal data of the countries likely to avail themselves of the shorter route, the abovenamed authority estimates the future transit mail carriage at 1,000,oco pouds (16,121 tons), requiring two to three special carriages from each end per diem by, of course, express or mail trains. Existing international postal arrangements would need modification before any profit to the railway itself, as an intermediary only, could be derived from this mail traffic.

Grain occupies the first place in the goods traffic of the Siberian line. Now, too, with the establishment of direct communication, viâ Riga, Siberian butter reaches the London market direct, and not under Danish marks, or via Denmark only.

The United States Consul-General at St. Petersburg, writing under date of 26th March, 1902, reports that it is officially announced that the express between St. Petersburg and Vladivostock was to be started by the 15th April (1902), and, according to the Journal de St. Petersburg (official organ), "the Directors of the Chinese-Eastern Railway propose to organise next autumn a regular through service between that line and the Russian railway system to the Port Arthur terminus), " and that henceforth there will be five Russian steamship services connecting the TransAsian Railway with ports in China and Japan, to which there will be a considerable extension as the railway acquires importance. The Engineer referring to this new route, says :

"Nearly 10,000 miles of the new route between Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane, and London, are covered by railway. The recognised line opens for serious traffic at the end of 1903, and there seems no reason to doubt it will give easier, quicker, and cheaper traffic than at present by the all-water route. Its existence as a competing route may be delayed for want of railway transport to the gateway, or, in other words, from the Southern Australian capitals to Port Darwin; but, nevertheless, the great Siberian Railway, which is destined to play a most prominent part in the immediate history of the Far East and

Australia, will prove such an important factor in the domestic traffic across the Australian Continent, as to make it desirable, if not certain, that the completion of the line to Port Darwin should before long be undertaken."

SWEET POTATOES FROM BARBADOS.

The wet summer that has been generally experienced throughout the British Isles has unfortunately been the cause of much anxiety among potato growers and consumers in arousing fears of short crops, inferior quality, and the prevalence of disease. Recent statements, however, have shown that the crop has not been so bad as was anticipated, though the quality is not a high one, owing to the prevalence of disease. Fortunately for Ireland, the crops are stated to be one of the most bounteous ever harvested, and that further, there is little indication of disease.

The potato being an almost indispensable article of food, it is satisfactory that we have not to depend alone upon the produce of the United Kingdom for our supplies, for we can draw very large quantities not only from France, Belgium, Holland, and Germany, but also from the Argentine and other places.

At periods of great scarcity in the potato supply, attention has frequently been directed to possible substitutes, but many of these have had but little to recommend them, besides which there is always much' difficulty in inducing people to overcome prejudice against new products, especially in articles of food, without there is absolute compulsion. There is, however, a tuber closely allied botanically to the common potato, which, though it is not unfrequently seen in the shops of most large towns is comparatively unknown in ordinary households, but which might probably become an article of considerable import into this conntry from many of our colonies, were more attention drawn to` it. This is the sweet potato, experimental shipments of which have been made in the early part of this year from the West Indies, the results of which were recently discussed at a meeting in Barbados, and reDr. Morris, ported in the Agricultural News. C.M.G., Commissioner of Agriculture, pointed out that when the matter was first started, an appeal was made to a few planters only to join in the experiment, the most cordial co-operation was at once received, and during the whole of the period, from December to May, a certain number of barrels of sweet potatoes was shipped by each mail to appointed agents in England. The potatoes were put upon the market, and sold for whatever they would fetch. The matter having' passed through this preliminary stage, it was now to be thrown open to the whole island.

Planters, however, were warned to bear in mind that the exportation of sweet potatoes still demands

careful organisation, there being yet only a limited demand, any large and unexpected shipment might easily swamp the market. It was pointed out as essential that there should be definitely appointed agents ready to receive an arranged number of barrels of the tubers, just as many, in fact, as can be disposed of immediately they arrive. What was wanted was a regular supply of produce of good quality and suitable size delivered in Bridgetown a day before the mail leaves.

For the guidance of intending shippers, the following regulations for preparation and packing have been drawn up and circulated. Potatoes intended for shipment to the English market should be dug on the Monday preceding the Saturday on which the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's steamers leave Barbados. They should be then spread on the floor of a dry, well-ventilated room until the following Friday, when they should be packed in barrels and shipped at once. The barrels recommended for this purpose should have about a dozen equi-distant clean cut holes of 14 inch diameter bored in the sides, for ventilation. The object of drying the potatoes for a few days before they are packed, is to harden the skin, and so prevent its being badly bruised. Each tuber should not be less than twelve, nor more than twenty ounces in weight; bruised tubers are rejected, and the red variety is preferred to the white.

At a time when a distinctive name for every new product seems to be of especial value, the suggestion of Sir Frederic Dodgson that sweet potatoes, exported from Barbados, should henceforth be distinguished as "Barbados potatoes" in all trade dealings, is a good one, and oue that will probably be generally adopted.

ARTIFICIAL MARBLE IN DENMARK.

The United States Consul at Copenhagen states that the lack of marble in Denmark has led to many attempts to produce a substitute which would equal in decorative effects the natural product and would not exceed it in cost. Some success has been achieved in the manufacture of this article in Sweden, but the thin slabs would not keep their shape, inclining to bend and warp. The veins were stiff and angular, and the soft transitions of colour which make variegated marble a thing of beauty were wanting. A significant advance has been made in this industry in Denmark by a master builder of Copenhagen named Sven Schongaard, who is producing a stone of such delicate transition of tints and play of colour that it is difficult to distinguish it from the natural product; while as to cost of manufacture it can compete with all other artificial marbles. The imitation of the more expensive species does not exceed in cost that of the cheaper ones. The inconvenience hitherto met with that the mass bad to be greased to prevent adhesion (thereby destroying the crystalline surface

come.

characteristic of the genuine article) has been overThe process of mauufacture is simple and easily learnt, and the cost of the outfit is said not to exceed £35. The article can be produced in any form desired-columns, plain or fluted, and capitals— as readily as flat slabs. It is claimed that even pictures may be made of this material. It seems to have the durability of genuine marble, but its cost is only about one tenth. At the present stage of the development of the industry, the maker is able to produce a slab about half an inch thick at a cost of about 7d. per square foot.

General Notes.

WELL SINKING IN CAPE COLONY.-Sir W. Willcocks, K.C.M.G., writes in his "Report on Irrigation in South Africa":-The extraordinary success which has attended deep bores in South Western Queensland has not been obtained in Cape Colony, nor ought it to be expected. In SouthWest Queensland, the rains which fell to the west of the dividing range along many hundreds of miles are absorbed by the ground and never reach the sea, and must have laid up rich stores of water which are available for use to-day. In South Africa the rain water everywhere escapes to the sea, and the sub-soil water can only be very local and insignificant in quantity. Shallow wells and windmills have, however, been a great success over large stretches of country, and have helped to save hundreds of thousands of sheep in years of drought. Since 1890 the Cape Colony Government has been boring holes for water with the aid of a special staff and implements. The general results up to the end of 1898 are, approximately, as follows:

Number of holes bored-2,600.
Successful-about five-sixths.
Unsuccessful-about one-sixth.
Cost of boring-per hole, £17.
Average depth of hole-60 feet.

Total discharge of water-26 cubic feet per second.
Discharge per hole- cubic feet per minute.

Practically all the holes need machinery of some

kind to lift the water.

This quantity of water is insignificant for irrigation, but for watering stock it is of the utmost value to the colony.

MEETING FOR THE ENSUING WEEK. TUESDAY, DEC. 23...Institution of Civil Engineers, 25, Great George-street, Westminster, S.W., 8 Disp.m. cussion on Mr. Stephen Martin-Leake's paper on "The Rupnarayan Bridge, Bengal-Nagpur Railway."