people attending these lectures amounted to 3 millions. It is not necessary to dilate on the value of these good works in bringing together parents and teachers in the rural districts, in brightening village life, and in stimulating and consolidating village interests. Let it suffice to say that in many places it is helping the school master to become the "lay rector" of the parish.

Of

Such then is the sketch of the French school and especially of the French rural school I have to offer you. Incomplete and superficial as it is it may nevertheless perhaps produce on you some faint impression of the effect it produced on me by the thoroughness of the organization, by the capability of the expert element in supervision and guidance, by the rare enthusiasm and self-devotion of the teachers, and by the correlation of subjects and the coherence of aim that distinguish the curriculum of the primary school. course there are blots, in some places the supervision is too drastic, the intrusion of politics too obvious, the teaching is lukewarm, and part of the programme remains unrealised. But judged en bloc-and I think my opinion will be endorsed by my colleague, Mr. Medd, of whose competence I do not need to speak here the general efficiency of the school is certainly remarkable. Mr. Medd and myself wrote entirely independent reports, yet anyone must notice that on all great questions we somewhat arrived at practically identical conclusions.

And this brings me to the last and most difficult part of the problem. How does the school stand in relation to the rural problem? Is it a power for good, or does it merely help to accentuate the rural crisis? Judging by what I saw, and heard, the French school is not out of sympathy with the home. At the time of my visit its struggle with the Church was distinctly on the wane, while the school is certainly in good odour among the vast majority of country folk. The great mass of those one interviewed assuredly did not look on it as an engine for setting boys against the land or increasing the longing for town life. Yet so much has been said, often unfairly, against the English rural school; such extravagant ideas have been advanced about the extent of its evil influence, that a statement of the French rural problem may help to open the eyes of those people who apparently think that a few changes in the school curriculum would prove a "cure-all" for every ill the countryside is heir to. Let us first consider, very

briefly, the French rural problem, and then we shall be able to see whether and to what extent the school exercises an alleviating or an aggravating influence.

Here again of course one can only speak of the five departments which one visited; yet lying as they did on the borderland between north and south they are probably typical of a great many other departments.

Speaking, broadly then, local industries except when grouped round centres like Flers and Lisieux seem to be declining. The village industries, once such a feature of these parts, are practically extinct. Agriculture while not the prosperous thing it was under the Empire (a matter that still makes the older peasant a Bonapartist at heart) has certainly improved during the last ten years, though land has fallen one-third in value. In many places the yield per acre of corn has doubled, thanks to the use of artificial manures. Dairy farming and cattle breeding are flourishing, exept where the foot-and-mouth disease is prevalent; but the great change from arable to pasture has had a bad effect on the peasant. It has made him more lazy than he was. Horse-breeding, especially for the remounts (the French prefer encouraging home industries to buying "screws" in Hungary) is a paying business, and hundreds of thousands of fowls and millions of eggs are sent from these districts to Leadenhall Market. The cider districts are the most

prosperous in France. If the apple crop is a failure owing to the wet, the hay crop grown under the trees is usually heavy: if the season is too dry for hay, the apple crop is a bumper one. The vine districts seem to have turned the corner, and nearly everywhere vine-growers are making money. The new method of replanting and grafting have robbed the phylloxera of its worst terrors. Agriculture has been immensely aided by the establishment of agricultural professors, who not only conduct local experiments but analyse soils, suggest the proper manures, and encourage co-operative purchase on a large scale. Much again has been done by the construction of light railways, the foundation of agricultural shows, the creation of syndicates among the farmers for buying manures, implements, and pedigree bulls. Some of these societies run into thousands of members. Mutual assurances against loss of crops or cattle are very widely practised, although cooperative selling is in its infancy. But le manque de bras c'est la plaie du pays. Labour is getting ever scarcer. The harvests

would stand rotting in the fields if the foreigners did not arrive in shoals to reap them or the Ministry of War did not allow the soldiers to go and lend a hand. Still the sons of the land-owning class no longer flock to Paris as they did. But the landless men still go. The attractions are higher wages, the glamour of town life and conscription. Half the 1ural conscripts, says one authority, never come back to till the soil. Those interested in preservi ng our village life had better note this when they hear conscription mooted in England. Another cause of the depopulation is the low birthrate. This is due in part to the love of comfort which restricts the number of children in the family, and to the absurd system of inheritance. The English system of primogeniture, says a witty Frenchman, confines the number of fools to one per family, we French have found a method for rendering the whole family imbeciles. Certainly the division of property in assuring to each child a pittance, is a great incentive to slackness and lack of enterprise. But the chief cause of depopulation is alcoholism. Fifty years ago France was probably the most temperate country in the world. Now it is by far the greatest consumer of alcohol. According to statistics France consumes annually 14 litres of pure alcohol at 100 per cent. per head. We only come a bad sixth in the list with 9:23 per cent. but even our record looks black beside Canada's 2.63 per cent. The cause of all this paradoxically was the phylloxera, which, by making wine comparatively dear, drove the people to beetroot spirit, absinthe, and other deadly poisons. The effects have been appalling. In Rouen a workman's morning breakfast often consists of slices of bread served in a soup tureen containing a litre or half a litre of spirit; the coffee even is left out. The same soup is not infrequently served at the evening meal, and this is the fare the children are brought up on. The whole race seems threatened. In the fourteen years between 1874-1888 the number of recruits in the Northern Departments unfit for service has increased sixfold, and in the district of Domfront there are some cantons in which, owing to the prevalence of alcoholism, the recruiting of young conscripts is becoming almost impossible. The asylums are filled up with these alcoholics. In that of Alençon 60 per cent. of the males and 70 per cent. of the women belong to this category.

In the light of the above facts it is clear that the higher primary school may do something for industry; the agricultural education given

in the primary and higher schools should make the pupils they turn out more anxious to follow the profession of their fathers and to profit by the services of the agricultural professor. But the other problems are clearly beyond the competence of the school to solve, except that of alcoholism, and here the teachers, though rather in the towns, have already started a vigorous campaign to rouse the younger generation to its dangers.

So much then for the school and its services to the locality. But the French, while not unheedful of local needs, none the less recognise that the school has also a national and a world-wide aim. They do not forget that it is the nursery of the citizen of tomorrow, and true to the teaching of the French Revolution they are far from neglecting the claims of humanity. While the French secondary school represents in some ways the quintessence of the culture of the past, the French primary school embodies to a certain extent some of the newest and most modern ideals in education. Their ways are probably not altogether our ways. Their aims may differ, but the principles they have set before them seem well worthy of our consideration and imitation. They desire to give the pupil a practical education, to render him as much as possible in sympathy with his present and with his future surroundings; but they none the less desire to keep his education general. They do not degrade the literary side of the curriculum, but transform it by choosing more suitable subjects. They try, in a word, to combine the education of the enlightened worker with that of the enlightened

citizen.

DISCUSSION.

The CHAIRMAN said he knew of no one more qualified to speak on the important subject of rural education than Mr. Brereton, who had made an investigation of the subject on the spot, and had possessed facilities which were denied to many other people, being an expert French scholar and qualified in other ways.

Mr. J. C. MEDD said with regard to elementary schools, he did not think that the French school had anything to teach the English. Frequently there was a better system of teaching and better co-ordination of subjects in France, but with regard to agricultural instruction he thought the English schools were at the present time conducted on the right lines.

The French admitted that they did not teach agriculture in the schools, but taught horticulture to a limited extent. The object of the elementary school was not to give specialised instruction, and the only subjects which should be introduced into elementary schools were those calculated to develop intelligence. He quite saw the necessity of introducing subjects which developed powers of observation, and, what was most important, to awaken the child's intelligence. It had been said that man had a good deal of curiosity, but very bad eyes. At the same time there were some things in the system of French primary education which Englishmen could well imitate. In the evening schools instruction became technical and utilitarian. He wished local authorities would take a lesson from France in encouraging and developing English schools as the schools were developed in France. The extraordinary growth of such schools across the Channel was entirely due to the voluntary effort of the rural teacher, and of this no one could speak with too much admiration. Often those evening efforts were not rewarded pecuniarily at all. He regretted that the Bishop of Winchester's amendment was not carried last night in the House of Lords. He thought attendance at evening schools ought to be made compulsory for two or three years, in the interest of the people themselves. He saw no reason why in England there had not been an additional class, an extra standard for children under the age of 15, added to a conveniently situated school in the district. Such provision enabled children to be benefited by proper instruction up to the age of 15. That kind of thing had been successfully carried out in Scotland, and should be equally possible in England. He thought the advanced schools should be divided into three sections: an agricultural section, a commercial section, and an industrial section. might find schools with an agricultural tendency in the country, and with a commercial tendency in towns, but there was no reason why schools should not have each of those three divisions. For the first year the education would be the same for all, and at the second and third years the lad would specialise as he wished. A committee of the Central Chamber of Agriculture had just considered the question of the rural school in relation to the rural exodus, and it would have been an advantage if that com. mittee had heard Mr. Brereton before their sitting.

One

The Right Hon. JESSE COLLINGS, M.P., disagreed with Mr. Medd when he said that the teaching of agriculture should not be given in the rural elementary schools. He thought that was just the place in which that education should begin, when the child's mind was in a pliable and receptive condition; thus would be implanted in the child's mind at the earliest moment a love for the country and everything rural. Could there be a greater means of increasing powers of observation and increasing intelligence than by teaching all those methods grouped under the term agri

culture connected with the produce of the land, and could there be a more elevating thing than to take young children, and show them how the natural processes worked? At present, if one asked a child who was regularly attending school to name the first tree he saw, he shook his head, and the same result occurred if he were asked to name the birds, or the various grasses, or the flowers in the hedgerow. Having laid the groundwork, the children would be so fascinated with the study that they would continue it in the evening continuation schools. At present, when they left the primary school they went into an occupation which took up all their energies, and not having had a love of the country implanted in them, they migrated to the town, and the country knew them no more. If the boy had remained in the country he would not only be getting a living but enjoying it. But the great point was to be able to hold out some good feature, some prospect other than that of being mere wage receivers. He would have a school garden connected with every rural school in the country, where there should be crops, seeds, fowls, rabbits, a pig, and other types of agricultural work. If such children could see a prospect of becoming cultivators later in life, not only would the exodus from the country to the town be stopped, but the balance would be turned the other way, and people would return to the country from the towns. Only thus would many of the terrible social problems be solved, such as overcrowding. He trusted that local authorities would have the sense to introduce that form of education in every rural school in the country.

Mr. FRANCIS OWEN joined in the regret at the enormous change which had come over the country in regard to the subject under discussion. He thought children were deteriorating in intelligence, because they did not now seem to think for themselves. He believed they should be taught how to study a text-book for themselves; they should be taken carefully through it, and the various points explained in a way which would help them to elucidate a subject for themselves. He related his experience as a chairman of a technical education committee, and pointed out how deficient in Third Standard subjects some of the boys were who had passed the Sixth Standard, and been employed for an interval since.

Mr. MARK WEBB suggested that as the word agriculture had been somewhat objected to, the American term, "Nature study," might be employed. It had been mentioned that children might be taught to think, but the child would not think unless something attractive was provided for him to think about. With regard to Mr. Brereton's mention of starting hostels round agricultural colleges, as in Surrey, Mr Macan had said that special authorities, supported by special County Councils, should be brought into

existence to do that particular work. He (Mr. Webb) had had the privilege lately of hearing and seeing explanations of a great deal of the work which had been done in England, and he could never have hoped that so much could have been done so suddenly.

Sir EDMUND HOPE VERNEY, Bart., said that last summer he made the acquaintance of several schoolmasters in France, and he could corroborate the remarks as to the admirable spirit which animated them, and the great desire for education there was in France. In one of the poorest quarters of France it was the practice to send a thousand children every summer, at the public expense, into the country districts, at a cost of £2 per child, and he did not know of any parallel to that remarkable action in this country. In England, in the rural districts, everyone hated education. The labourer's wife came with tears in her eyes to beg that her children might be ! excused from school so that they might earn a little pittance in the field. The farmer complained of his labourer, who knew as much as he knew himself, which would never do. The squire and the parson also hated it, and the clergyman's wife, who was generally about the worst of the lot, said " What are we going to do for servants?" He had heard eloquent speakers in the country move meetings one way or another, until they came to the subject of education, and then it was evident that was not wanted, and it was obvious that a wet blanket had been thrown over the meeting. Each speaker seemed to dwell upon the importance of developing the intelligence of the child, and the only difference was as to the way to do it and its effect. He disagreed with Mr. Jesse Collings, because however their eyes were opened, when that was brought about the young men were not such fools as to remain in the country. There was no hope for them, and no prospect. What went to the root of the whole matter was the need for a radical reform of the land laws, without which the troubles in connection with that subject would not be solved, and people would not be prevented from going to the towns, where they were free, and found careers open to them.

The CHAIRMAN said we could not be said to have developed any system in this country in connection with the subject under discussion. No system of any other country should be copied, because systems must be evolved according to the natural character and surroundings of the people. Having regard to the great progress which had been made in national education during the last ten years, he thought before another ten years there would be a system of education in this country which would compare most favourably with that of any other country in the world. He agreed that the primary school was not the place in which technical instruction must be given, but in which introductory instruction must be provided. He agreed also with Mr. Jesse Collings, that the intelligence of children should be so awakened as to enable

them to take a very great interest in agriculture, which was best done by cultivating the system of "Nature study," that elementary knowledge which could be developed later in technical pursuits. He thought the so-called technical education question had not been solved either here or in France, and the French did not manage such things any better than we did in this country. He thought the solution lay in training teachers who should be competent to give the instruction required, and then there could be established rural schools with a proper curriculum.

A vote of thanks having been passed to Mr. Brereton, was briefly acknowledged by him.

Miscellaneous.

OLD AGE PENSIONS IN NEW SOUTH

WALES.*

In New South Wales the Old Age Pension Act of 1900 was assented to on the 11th December of that year, but the first payments of pension claims were not made till the latter half of 1901. A successful applicant for a pension must have shown-That he is at least 65 years of age; is residing in the State on the date when he makes good his claim to the pension; has been residing in the State for not less than twenty-five years immediately before that date; that during the twelve years immediately before the date when he makes good his claim he has not been imprisoned for four months, or on four occasions, for any offence punishable by imprisonment for twelve months or more; that during twenty-five years immediately preceding the date of his claim he has not been imprisoned for a term of five years, with or without hard labour; that, if he is married, he has not at any time, for a period of six months or more, deserted his wife, or without just cause has failed to provide her with sufficient means of support, or has neglected to look after such of his children as were under the age of 14 years; that he is of good character, and is leading, and has been leading for five years at least, a sober and respectable life; that his income does not amount to £52 a year or more; that he has not deprived himself of income or property in order to qualify for a pension; and that, if a naturalised subject, he has been naturalised for at least ten years before the date on which he claims his pension. No alien, Australian aboriginal, or Asiatic, is entitled to a pension. A person of 60 years of age or more, and yet under the age of 65, may obtain a pension if he is unable, through bodily ailment or defect, to earn his own living, and if he, in all other respects, fulfils the conditions stated above. When

Communicated by Mr. John Plummer.

the claimant has satisfied himself that his claim is a proper one, and can be established, he must send the form of pension-claim, properly filled up and with the declaration upon it witnessed, as required in the form, to the clerk of the nearest Court of Petty Sessions, or to the Deputy-Registrar for Old-Age Pensions for the district. The claim will then be examined by the District Board for Old - Age Pensions, and the Board may require a claimant to appear before them personally, or to produce further evidence with regard to his claim. If he receives an intimation from the Deputy-Registrar that he is required to appear before the Board or furnish additional evidence, he must be prepared to satisfy the Board in regard to his claim. The Board may authorise some officer to make inquiries, and in that case he must give the officer any information he can. When a pension claim is admitted by the Board, the Deputy-Registrar issues a pension-certificate to the claimant. If the Board does not grant the pension the claimant may appeal against it, but he must do so within one month after the Board's decision on his claim has been made known to him. He can get the necessary form for his appeal from the Deputy-Registrar of the district on applying either in person or by post. After properly filling the form, the claimant must send it to the nearest Clerk of Petty Sessions, being informed of the result of his appeal in due course. The fact of a man having been granted a pension will not prevent his wife obtaining one also if she is 65 years of age and otherwise eligible. Where the pensioner has an income of over 10s. a week apart from his pension, a deduction from his pension is made according to a scale fixed by the Act. If the pensioner has property over the value of £390, a deduction will also be made on that account. Since the pension is for the personal support of the pensioner, it cannot be transferred to any other person in any circumstances, or attached for the purpose of meeting the pensioner's debts. Six months' imprisonment is the penalty which may be imposed upon any person who tries by false statements to obtain a pension to which he has no claim, or one of a larger amount than he is entitled to. No pension can be given to any person who is kept by a charitable institution, or who receives relief from one, unless such a person suffers from some bodily defect or ailment which prevents him from taking care of himself. In such a case the reasonable cost of his keep or of the relief he receives will be paid out of his pension. According to Mr. Coghlan, the State Government Statistician, the number of claims received under the Old Age Pensions Act during the six months of 1901 in which it was in operation was 28,709, and of these 22,113 were allowed by the district boards adjudicating on the claims. During the same period the number of deaths of pensioners was 543, so that the actual number of pensions on December 31st was 21,570. The total sum payable in respect of pensions on the same date was £500,334, so that the average amount

of each pension granted was £23 4s. per annum, or 8s. 11d. per week. The pension list is growing rapidly, as a large number of persons eligible delayed making claims; and on the 31st March, 1902, it is estimated that 22,500 pensions were payable, involving a sum of about £521,900.

IRRIGATION IN SOUTH AFRICA.

The following notes on the importance of irrigation for the supply of water to the gold mines are from the Report of Sir William Willcocks, K.C.M.G. :Valuable as water may be for agricultural purposes, it is a thousand-fold more valuable for gold washing at the Rand mines. The gold-bearing strata are singularly free from water, offering in this respect a marked contrast to the dolomite which lies just above them. As I understand, about seven cubic feet of ore yield £1. To wash out this gold there are needed ten tons of water for each ton of ore. A ton of ore may be taken as twelve cubic feet, and a ton of water as 35 cubic feet. Of the water used, one-fifth is permanently lost, and the remaining four-fifths are used again. From these data it results that forty cubic feet of water are needed to work out

1. Now in the dolomite region we may say that 150,000 cubic feet of water will be needed to irrigate one acre of land for one year, of which the nett yield may be taken as 5. In other words, in agriculture 30,000 cubic feet of water will yield £1, as against 40 cubic feet in the Rand mines. As the Rand mines are the principal source of wealth of South Africa, it is only reasonable that round Johannesburg all agricultural interests should yield to the gold mining interests during the life time of the mines. Now the Rand mines produce £20,000,000 of gold per annum, and need 800,000,000 cubic feet per annum, or 25 cubic feet per second. Up to the present the water needed for the mines has been obtained partly from the mines themselves, partly from the numerous reservoirs on the steep sides of the hills round Johannesburg, where the most considerable reservoir dam is a 40 feet high wall of masonry, partly from a well south of the Klip River, and partly from the Johannesburg Water Company. During years of deficit rainfall the mines are put to great difficulty to meet these demands for water, and sometimes they are put to considerable loss, while tens of thousands of workmen and plant lie idle. It is, moreover, contemplated to raise the output of the mines to £40,000,000 per annum. To increase the output certainly, and to insure the present working of the mines even, it is considered essential by the Chamber of Mines, Johannesburg, that something should be done to ensure a permanent supply of water to the mines. Now, fortunately for Johannesburg, not only are the Karoo strata overlying the dolomite interspersed with thick seams of coal, which can be delivered at the mines at eight shillings per ton, but the dolomite overlying the gold