some of the MSS., especially in such as are of large extent or of frequent repetition when economy of time and labour was desired. When, however, circumstances allowed, time and skill were not spared in the elaboration of the work. It is of course for this reason that the heraldry in architectural decoration is generally found to be among the best work of its period.

In the ceremonial shields, this elaboration is very great. They were made of layers of various materials, such as canvas, stretched on wooden frames, and the changes were then modelled in gesso, and afterwards gilt and painted, or were fashioned in stamped leather and pinned down to the surface. The spaces were diversified with the beautiful tracery known as diapering, and the whole result was rich and beautiful in the extreme. Large numbers of these shields were made in Italy down to a late period. A most admirable English example is the shield at Canterbury Cathedral, said to be that of the Black Prince. Here the lions are admirably distributed, full of power and life, and less extravagantly drawn than those of John of Eltham at Westminster Abbey, but they lack something of leonine character. The fleur de lis of France are beautifully free and graceful, and though so dissimilar in shape to the lions, are equally well designed to occupy their spaces and equally well proportioned to them. The whole work, which is so excellent an example now of some of the best qualities of heraldic design, has suffered from the wear of the centuries, but when it was uninjured must have been superb. The lack of leonine character in the lions might naturally be expected when it is remembered that they were the descendants of generations of copies and, therefore, were not consciously generalised from objects seen by the artist. Even when he did see a lion his acquired ideas were too strong for him, so that one in a 13th century book of sketches, though noted in the margin as "drawn from the quick," is very like its patternlike fellows.

Whether the treatment was simple or elaborate, however, its breadth of effect and decorative quality were nearly always conspicuous. These various methods, both satisfactory in their way, are of special interest to those who require historic sanction to a choice of treatment, in opposition to the opinion that, as certain methods of work, or works of a certain period are good, they are, in addition, perfect and everything else is wrong. So, when a flat treatment, in hormony or contrast with surrounding decora

tion seems desirable, the armorials may be done flatly, and when on the other hand a more elaborate treatment seems fit, modelling in relief or any other suitable means of decorative effect may be employed. The old work itself, full of variety and freedom, teaches us how to look at the subject without pedantry, but not without knowledge. It teaches the right of individual treatment combined with selection, and illustrates in a measure the essentially artistic principles taught to Kipling's primæval ballad-maker by his totem, "There are nine and sixty ways of composing tribal lays, And every single one of them is right."

It is not meant, however, that ignorant and reckless scribbling is right. Order as well as freedom is necessary, and this can only be secured by a study of the subject from all points of view.

The early treatment of the crest, helm, and mantling will also amply repay study. Being made of light material, and having its weight, which was still considerable, supported by the shoulders on which the helm rested, the crest was of conspicuous size and is so represented. In early times it is said to have been one of the privileges of knighthood, and this would additionally explain its emphasis. The helm was usually that known as the great helm, to distinguish it from the helmet, basinet or other form of head armour. The latter, having a visor or front which opened, and a movable neck, came into use in the 15th century to meet the desire for lightness and mobility in actual battle, and thenceforward crests and the great helms that bore them were reserved for the tournament and other military solemnities. There was another especially practical reason for this disuse. It had been found that a crest was a dangerous ornament in actual battle, for at close quarters it served as an excellent handle by which to pull down the. wearer's head. King Stephen is said to have been taken prisoner in this manner. The mantling, which was at first quite simple, scon became of the greatest value as an element of composition, and the importance of its free possibilities of line was quickly recognised. From a mere representation of the helm drapery, it thenceforth developed through various forms until it became in many instances similar to the contemporary architectural tracery, when, as in the 15th century carvings, it surrounded the shield and ornamented the surface of the panel in a very complete and beautiful way.

By the Tudor time heraldry had ceased to be

used in war in the old way, with such exceptions as banners and the decorative and emblematic shields on ships of war, and it, of course, remained an essential part of the tournaments, while they continued to exist, but heraldry in the main became merely decorative thenceforward, retaining, of course, its allusive and symbolic qualities. In this way it greatly increased, thus sharing in the impetus given to the arts by the end of the Wars of the Roses. At this time a remarkable number of simple flowers came into heraldic use, columbine, gillyflowers, marigolds, honeysuckle, and many. more appearing not only as arms but in garlands as decorative accessories.

By this time also the shield shapes had become less simple, following in their cuspings the fluted armour of which they formed part, and others of which large numbers were designed by the little masters were frank applications of the decorative scrolls of the time. The concave shield whose raised edges took the light and helped to define the form, while assisting, together with the shadow within it, the distribution of light and shade, became much in use.

Some of the early renaissance heraldry retained much of the excellence of the preceding Gothic as regards the pose of the figures and the general composition, and it attempted, in addition, the characterisation that was wanting in the earlier work. In many respects it was very admirable, and seems, in its individual thought working on some of the suggestions or traditions of the older style, to suggest the lines on which modern heraldry might develop. At the same time there was a more naturalistic school, of which the heraldry in Della Robbia's work may be taken as the expression, and this also is interesting, but as a warning. It most unfortunately overpowered the more decorative style, and ultimately developed into the feebleness which characterised the heraldry that preceded the revival in the last century.

A well-known example of the better renaissance is the plate by Albert Dürer, of a shield bearing a rampant lion. In this plate there is also evident a desire to render the mantling more cloth-like, though still complicated. Mantling afterwards followed the influence of the conventional leaf forms of the renaissance.

I have ventured to give you this slight sketch of the development of the artistic side of heraldry, not as a mere historic retrospect, but because it is in the study of old work that guidance is to be found for present requirements. But in this connection, a word of

warning may perhaps be permitted against making a fetish of the work of any period, however good. Another is against mere copying of old examples however excellent, except, of course, for purposes of study. Merely to. copy bits of heraldic precedent and to piece them together is not the way to make an artistic thing at all. A copy has no vitality of its own, and cannot even reproduce that of its original, for it is more than doubtful if it is possible to reproduce the spirit of work done under other conditions and modes of thought. Even Pugin, to whom the revival of decorative heraldry owes so much, with all his sympathy, and with all his powers of draughtsmanship, cannot be said to have altogether caught the intense vigour of his originals.

Again, hardly anything possesses, at the same time, all the good qualities that it might have, and we sometimes excuse the absence of one because of the supreme way in which another is expressed. In doing new work a broader view is necessary if it is to result in anything but a shadow of a former style. Heraldry should be expressive, interesting, and decorative. Original in treatment, and exhibiting the qualities that the best of the old work teaches us to desire, rather than being a copy of it. The term "original" here does not mean expression by means of wild arrangements of weird lines, which are perhaps original in the sense that there is nothing like them on earth, but rather the originality, or, perhaps I should say, individuality, which comes from serious attempts to express qualities rather than to copy styles.

The artistic expression of heraldry may be regarded in two ways; as a representation of an actual shield, crest, helm, and so forth, as they would be represented in a picture, of a tournament for instance, or as a presentation of the essential heraldic facts, in the way that is thought most expressive but without too much regard to preceding styles. The former seems more suitable to ancient and historic arms, and the latter to be more likely to harmonise with modern decorative surroundings, as well as to possess more vitality and variety in itself.

This harmony with surrounding decoration, is one of the essentials of design that should be continually kept in mind. Another condition, equally important, is suitability to the materials and methods by which the design is expressed. The two very obvious points cannot be too often insisted on, howeyer wearisome the reiteration, for they are even now frequently ignored. One hears of shields

painted on vellum (with all the detail and finish to which that beautiful material lends itself), sent as a substitute for a working drawing for large embroidery or carving, and accompanied by instructions that they must be strictly followed. Or of friezes and panels, of which the different parts, heraldic and ornamental, have been done by different designers working in ignorance of each other's design. The general design is made, perhaps of well drawn and graceful lines, with spaces where it is thought, probably correctly, that the shields would tell. Then a sketch, perhaps a mere diagrammatic note of the arms, is procured, enlarged to the right size, and blindly copied. Of course the result is patchwork. Careless treatment of heraldry seems to pervade applied art, and so to spoil what is otherwise :neritorious work. Much incongruity arises from fear lest improving the drawing or composition may violate heraldic rules, and this brings us to the necessity for acquiring such a knowledge of the subject as will enable the designer to know what points are really essential, and therefore to be carefully retained and accentuated where accent is proper, and what, on the other hand, may be modified or ignored. A knowledge of the system of heraldic description, called blazon, will be absolutely necessary to this end. Pedantry in non-essential matters is of course absurd, and artistic freedom is always to be desired, but there must first of all be a basis of knowledge on which to work.

It will be necessary to study the subject sufficiently to distinguish between the essential principles (such as underlaid the old good work) and the later amplifications of rules, full of pedantic insistence on regulating every detail however unimportant, which were made when the legal mode of thought had displaced the artistic one. The rules that are necessary to prevent confusion will be found sufficiently elastic to allow variety of treatment.

Among the qualities that it will be desired to express are just proportion, distinct definition, good distribution in filling spaces, strongly characterised and well accented forms, and vigorous pose.

The proportion of the parts of a usual form of heraldic group of shield, crest, helm and mantling, to each other remained fairly constant from the end of the 13th century to Tudor times, and may be taken (roughly) to be two-fifths of the whole height for the shield and three-fifths for the helmet and crest.

This merely as a practical guide. I need hardly say that it is not to be taken

as actual measurement, but only as suggesting the relative weights in the design. The character of the crest, whether broad and solid, or tall and slight, would affect this. The result of these proportions is to bring the helm a little above the actual centre of the design, where it forms a satisfactory point cn which the other objects group themselves.

With regard to the proportions of ordinaries to their fields, many rules to be found in treatises may be safely ignored. In good work the ordinaries vary in size with the requirements of distinctness in respect to the other charges, and their variation in this way has no other significance. I do not, of course, deny the usefulness of points of proportion, they may be useful so long as it is recognised that they are approximate and variable guides instead of dogmatic inflexible rules. With regard to charges, it is equally impossible to say what exact proportion they should bear to the field, nor in most cases could we measure it if we did. It must be a matter of artistic perception which decides whether a space is properly filled. In any case the proportion would be an apparent rather than scientific one, and would be greatly modified by circumstances, colour for instance. I need hardly point out that the actual measurements would not be the same for a white object on black as for a black one on white. It is curious how prevalent the desire has always been to reduce to exact rules matters that are insusceptible of that kind of control. The 16th century efforts at a geometric way of drawing letters and the attempt to regulate minutely heraldic drawing are instances of a peculiarly wrongheaded way of approaching matters essentially æsthetic.

As to the animal forms, vigour is of the utmost importance, together with strong characterisation. In this connection the lions of the Assyrian reliefs are very suggestive. The expression of strong, leonine character by means of the accentuation of the muscular masses is a method that lends itself well to heraldic design. The composite figures are also well worthy of study in relation to the griffins and other monsters of later times. Gerard Leigh, writing in the middle of the 16th century, has something to say about griffins; they are, as you know, half eagle and half lion, which students of natural history may like to know, thus: "Griffins bear great enmity to man and horse; though the man be armed and on horseback, yet they take the one with the other quite from the ground and carry them clean away. I think they are of

great hugeness," he goes on "for I have a claw of one of their paws which should show them to be as big as two lyons." In another place Leigh refuses to believe something because "he had not seen the proof thereof." It will be well to consider animal pose in relation to the anatomical possibilities, and the qualities of dignity, strength, or grace which are associated with certain charges should also find due expression.

The schemes of arrangement that suggest themselves as suitable to decorative purposes, are very various. Complete series of family arms and those of alliances, together with the honours conferred on individuals; arms of successive owners; shields marking the visits of distinguished guests, and so forth.

Unity of plan, such as when the arms are arranged in relation to some central object as the altar in a church or the fireplace in a room, for example, is, of course, desirable. In the latter case the central position would be appropriately occupied by the entire armorials.

The employment of Badges in decoration opens up a large and interesting field of design from their value as decoration in places where shields of arms are not so suitable. Though not subject to the same rules as the regular arms they were still regarded as of great though secondary importance, and became practically hereditary in many cases. Time, however, will not permit of their adequate treatment here. A kind of badge, more ephemeral in character, called an impress, was a fashion that came to us from Italy, as many other heraldric fashions did. They were devised from mere fancy, and consisted of a device with an explanatory motto. Henry VIII. and his knights at the Field of the Cloth of Gold bore a series of devices, of which they wore part each day until the whole was complete. Cosmo de Medici had a tortoise with a sail attached and the motto "Festina lente," and there were others innumerable. Like other heraldic matters, they sometimes led to quarrels. A knight who strutted up and down at the court of King James, had a falcon embroidered on his sleeve, and the motto, "I bear a raven, fearless in flight, who checks at him his death is dight." Then a Scottish knight saw the device, and after a while appeared with another. His was a raven with a piece of meat, and its motto said, "I bear a raven picking at a piece, who pecks at him, I'll peck at his nese." The story goes on, that in the

arrangements for the consequent fight, the Scottish knight, who had but one eye, demanded that his opponent should lose one of his, in order to be on an equality.

There will not be time to do more than briefly allude to colour treatment. It will suffice to say that it is not at all desirable that heraldry should scream in mural decoration however necessary it may have been to do so in the field. So long as the tinctures are distinguishable with sufficient clearness any modification of tint may be used, and the colour may be broken by means of diaper or other surface treatment that may be desirable in order to make the heraldry take its appointed place. Always avoiding, however, any interference with the clear statement of the heraldric facts. The decoration may be modelled in gesso and treated with monochrome, so as to emphasize the modelling, or in many another way that practice will suggest.

The revival of the art of enamel also offers a splendid material for heraldic work. The series of works in enamel on the monuments, and above all, the early Stall Plates of the Knights of the Garter at Windsor, are too well known to need more than an allusion to the magnificent field of study they afford; but it may perhaps be permitted to hope that the beautiful art of enamelling which (though its revival is less than 20 years old) is fully capable of worthily following its long ago predecessors, may have, some day, an opportunity of doing

So.

The value of heraldry in domestic decoration is also obvious. One can hardly imagine anything to excel the gemlike effect of armorial enamels on the dark panels of a library, for example.

Whatever be the material in which heraldry finds its means of expression, it is permitted confidently to hope that the wide and increasing interest that is being extended to the subject may result in the production of work that is not unworthy to follow the best of its predecessors.

DISCUSSION.

Mr. CHARLES CHADWYCK-HEALEY, K.C., said that he had listened with great interest to Mr. Eve's remarks, and he wished to express his appreciation of the work that Mr. Eve had been doing for some time in developing the art of heraldry in this country. There was very great need for such work, for the country had been in a lamentable condition in this

matter for a great number of years, and it was so still, in spite of everything that had been done to bring about improvement. One need only to look, for instance, at the miserable way in which heraldry was impressed upon silver plate by the silversmith, by means of engraving. An instance came under his personal observation a year or two ago. It was desired to put a shield of arms upon a piece of old plate, and one of the leading silversmiths in London was invited to engrave it. A preliminary sketch was made, but a more pitiable thing was never turned out. The charges were reduced to the very smallest possible dimensions, so that they could hardly be recognised. The artist seemed to desire to display as much as possible the colour of the shield. The ordinary was also of the smallest dimensions. He hoped that the time was not very far distant when heraldry as a means of decoration might be developed, and that the practice of it would permeate through every class of artificer. But that could only be brought about by conscientious work, and by the example of men who had made the subject their study. He believed that a great deal was being done on the Continent in developing heraldry in design. Probably continental design would prove to be in the end rather more florid than English people cared to see, but, as an illustration of continental work he might refer to the Munich almanack, which was published every year, and which could be bought for a shilling. It was full of heraldic designs. The publication of a work of similar character was one of the ways in which heraldic design might be popularised in this country.

Mr. R. GARRAWAY RICE agreed that the subject was of great interest. It was noticeable how much better the earlier heraldry was than the later. If he understood Mr. Eve's work aright, it had gone on the principle of trying to bring back that simplicity which was true decoration, and to avoid excessive ornament. In the 18th century, when classical forms prevailed in architecture, heraldry, which was essentially medieval, was out of place, and it was very difficult to introduce it, hence architecture and heraldry seemed to have fallen apart. At the present day one had the advantage of being able to study the various periods, but it seemed to him that the difficulty which a modern designer had to contend with was that having at his finger-ends practically everything that had gone before, it was extremely difficult to avoid a kind of mixture. The difficulty of modern artists was to give something pure and to avoid introducing features which were out of place.

the greater beauty of heraldic designs on buildings than in other things. He thought that the chief reason of this was, that in buildings, heraldic designs were always executed in higher relief.

Mr. GEORGE CLULOW said that Mr. Eve had put before them, in a very interesting way, examples of the decorative use of heraldic design in England and other countries, but had omitted Germany. He regretted this, because there were, in Germany, numerous examples of the 16th century which abounded in the vigorous and decorative character on which Mr. Eve had properly laid much stress. As to the way in which heraldry is often expressed on plate, they must look at the subject from the point of view of the ability of the person called in to do the work. The incident of which Mr. Chadwyck-Healey had told them, displayed, of course, great ignorance on the part of the designer and engraver. It seemed to him that attention ought to be called to the fact that there were among them gentlemen who were capable of supplying heraldry in scientific form, and according to the proper heraldic The value of a paper, such as had been read, was that it would call attention to that fact.

use.

Mr. FRANK FREDERICK, in reply to the Chairman, said that the whole subject was absolutely new to him, as he came from a country where heraldry was not regarded, and where it was only seen in decoration and design. Only that day, in walking in the South Kensington Museum, he was struck with the fact that there was such a mine of wealth of design there.

Mr. ALEXANDER MILLAR said that he had derived extreme pleasure from Mr. Eve's book. That was a work which everyone interested in the subject ought to possess. But, like another speaker, he had been little disappointed not to find more reference to German heraldry. He possessed a book of which an English edition was about to be published, which appeared to him to be the fullest and finest work on German heraldic design, so far as ancient examples were concerned. In that book, the crest appeared to be composed, in many cases, of enormous horns, taking a sort of lyre shape, and ending in a kind of trumpet mouth. He did not think that he had seen anything like it in English heraldry, though it was extremely common in Germany. He should like very much to ask whether Mr. Eve could explain what the purport of that design was. Reference had been made to a German almanack, which had been published for seven or eight years; something of the same kind appeared in this country this year and last year, and he had copies of it. This book gave the English coats of arms in precisely the same style that coats of arms were given in the German almanack, but the design was less extravagant, and had a more chastened method of expression. Mr. Eve referred in his book to the origin of the