Oldalképek
PDF
ePub

collected, the Imperial Government had decided to hear not only the opinions of the representatives of the principal Trusts, but also those of independent authorities on the subject. The Government wishes to be accurately informed of the influence of the Trusts upon the normal development of industry and trade, with special reference to their action during periods of industrial depression. The final results will be made known in a special official publication, and are eagerly expected by the interested parties on both sides.

Although it is generally unknown, the origin of Trusts may be traced back to very early times. The Justinian Code, for instance, forbade, in the public interest, certain combinations of merchants and artisans, and in the Middle Ages the Trust movement had attained such a development that certain combinations of merchants were able to decree the sinking of whole cargoes of spices into the sea in order to diminish the supply and thus maintain or raise the level of prices. The organisation of the Trusts during and after the Middle Ages was fairly efficient, taking into consideration the difficulties of communication in those days, but declined in course of time, and was finally abolished by the French Revolution, which went so far as to forbid the assemblage of citizens of the same calling. The politicians of the Revolution held it to be the duty of the State to suppress the formation of all corporations with private interests not shared by the people in general.

Shortly after the grave commercial crisis which occurred in Germany during the years following immediately upon the Franco- German War, the Trusts were again revived, at first principally in the coal, salt, chemical, petroleum, sugar, and spirit branches. At the beginning of 1902 Germany possessed about 389, of which about 300 were organised by manufacturers and the remaining 80 by dealers. Since then the total number has risen to 400, of which the chemical industries contribute proportionately the largest number. At the present moment negotiations are taking place in Germany for the formation of a Central European Electrical Trust, and in spite of the many obstacles to be overcome, it is most probable that its appearance is only a question of time.

From many quarters public opinion has appealed to the State to take action with regard to the Trusts, but as yet no suitable or practicable proposals have been formulated. The annual congress of German lawyers discussed the question this year, and proposed that the Trusts should be compelled to give any information regarding their transactions to the Government, if such were deemed necessary, in the general interests of the nation. Dr. Steinbach, formerly Austrian Minister of Finances, seems also to advocate the intervention of the State for the prevention of the abuses called into being by Trusts, and proposes that they should be compelled to furnish exact details of all their transactions to the State

Administration. He is also of opinion that the Government should, further, be empowered in the public interest to demand the alteration of any obnoxious rules in the organisation of the Trusts, and in case of necessity to abolish certain Trusts altogether.

In some cases the exaggerated demands of some Trusts has led to the formation of opposition Trusts. For example, the beetroot cultivators formed a Trust to protect themselves against the sugar manufacturers. Some of the Rhenish ironworks combined together and acquired coal mines in order to procure fuel at a lower rate. The Association of German Publishers intends to establish works for the manufacture of printing paper, in order to render itself independent of the paper market. The formation of these opposition Trusts is, however, fraught with a certain element of danger, as they undergo the risk of being undersold by the older and more experienced organisation.

In the meanwhile the principal German Trusts are taking steps to form a combination of all the Trusts in the empire, which is, for the present, to be affiliated to the Association of German Manufacturers. To this end, a meeting was held at Berlin, in April, 1902, and a commission appointed, which has already invited all the Trusts in Germany to take combined action. The first step of the Trusts' Association will probably be to influence any State legislation which it may deem inimical to its interests.-British Consul Frederick Rae in Mining Journal.

THE DIAMOND INDUSTRY.

The Amsterdam Chamber of Commerce, in its voluminous and locally valuable annual report (printed in English), reviews the diamond industry-an important one in the Dutch city. Unfortunately the report is somewhat belated, relating mainly to the year 1901, but some particulars are interesting. It mentions, for instance, the change effected in the diamond workers' trade by the application of the mechanical cutting or sawing process to the rough diamonds. Several parts of the stone, which were cut off gradually or ground away according to the old method, are now sawn to any desired size from the rough stone and converted into small brilliants. "The advantage of this proceeding is so obvious," says the report, "that it will require no further explanation. The London syndicate immediately availed themselves of this new invention, by raising the price of all stones fit for the operation of the mechanical saw. This resulted, as usual now and then, in temporary obstruction to the trade." The report goes on to say that "one of the causes for slackness of trade in ground diamonds was the fact that since the prices have become 100 per cent. higher in the course of two years, the speculative trade in the article has entirely subsided and the sale is limited to replenishing of stock." A source of much disquiet in the market was the selling of great

It

quantities of polished diamonds at low rates. This would have produced a panic in 1901 had not the market "been supported by a stern confidence in the London rough syndicate." In 1902 it transpired "that those sales below the market value emerged from some untrustworthy merchants and agents." appears that for some years there has been a decline in the diamond working industry in Europe. The report, whilst describing the unfavourable state of affairs in Amsterdam, says circumstances were last year just as bad in other places. "In Hanau, St. Claude and environs, Geneva, London, &c., are fewer men at work than a few years ago. The Hanau manufacturers are trying to obtain an import duty of 25 per cent. ad valorem on polished diamonds as a means to improve their business. In this sense they have sent a petition to the German Government. But the jewellers strongly oppose their movement. New York alone makes an exception. There the work is carried on pretty regularly, without showing any retrogression. The United States are still the principal buyers of our product.”—The Times.

ST. LOUIS EXHIBITION, 1904. The United States Mint is striking special souvenir gold dollars to commemorate the centenary of the purchase of Louisiana from the French in 1803, and as a souvenir of the Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. By Act of Congress, the issue is limited to 250,000. The face of the coin bears the lettering "Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1803-1903, One Dollar," whilst, on the reverse of half the number, is impressed the head of Thomas Jefferson, the statesman who negociated the treaty with Napoleon for the purchase. On the remaining 125,000 is the head of William McKinley, among whose last official acts as President was the signing of the proclamation of the Exhibition. Around the portraits are the words "United States of America." The first 50,000 dollars, 25,000 of each design, are ready and will be offered for subscription through bankers and banking houses at three dollars each, none to be sold at a lower figure. The first coin struck was for President Roosevelt; the second has been handed to Mr. Shaw, the Secretary of the Treasury. Some estimate of the sale value of this small issue of souvenir coins can be formed from the present price of the ordinary United States gold dollars, which, if at all in condition, readily fetch two dollars each, while, if they belong to the smaller issues, they command as much as twenty-five or fifty dollars.

The first gold dollars were issued in 1849. Between 1849-1890, 19,499,337 coins were struck. Up to 1858, 16,762,701 dollars were made-an average of 2,000 a year. In 1853, 4,384,149 coins passed between the dies. The smallest issue in any one year was in 1875, when the total reached only 420. The present issue of gold of this denomination is the

first since 1889. The profits accruing from the St. Louis coins are to be devoted to the erection on the Exhibition grounds of two heroic statues of Thomas Jefferson and William McKinley. The offices of the St. Louis Exhibition for the United Kingdom are at Sanctuary House, Tothill-street, Westminster, S.W.

Correspondence.

METHODS OF MOSAIC CONSTRUCTION.

I am at present engaged upon the production of cartoons and the filling in of incised monumental work at Harrow-on-the-Hill. In the first case I had no difficulty, the motif from my design having been produced in faïence by Theodore Deck, of Sèvres though the faïence was in a much brighter key than the mosaic.

The obstacle that I have had to encounter is the use of silver to find graduation of tone in so bright a substance; aluminium does not tarnish, but then it fuses at a low temperature, as does also lead. Thus I think that I shall have to use tin.

I think it not at all unlikely that at Pompeii linen was used for the tesseræ, as it answers all the purposes of paper.

JOHN LEIGHTON.

THE ETYMOLOGY OF “BOOKS,”
ET CETERA.

In my remarks in the discussion on Mr. Douglas Cockerell's paper on Technical Education in connection with the Book-producing trade, I ventured on an etymological digression in illustration of the origins of the prevailing present form of books. As this point may prove suggestive to future students of the subject, I now submit what I then said with some further etymological particulars.

We may pass by writings [cuneiform] on bricks, and on rocks.—although it is interesting to note by the way the passage in "the Book of Job," xix., 23, 24, referring explicitly to the latter:"Oh that my words were now written! That they were inscribed in a book! That with an iron pen and lead they were graven in the rock for ever!" Possibly as ancient was the use of writing on strips from the stem of the Nilotic sedge the Egyptians called by a name which in the mouths of the Greeks and Romans became papyrus," and in ours, "paper." The actual portion of the pellicle of this sedge used for writing, the Egyptians called by a name which in the mouths of the Greeks became byblos, and biblos, specifically 'a book," and biblion, "a little book "; in Latin "biblia," meaning collected writings," whence

66

66

[ocr errors]

66

was directly derived the French and English" Bible." Another Egyptian name for the pellicle became the Greek word charies, whence our words " chart," "card," &c. The Greeks also called the separate strips of the papyrus selis, a "leaf,” [cf. Greek lepein "to scale'], which gummed together formed what we call a 66 page," this word coming to us through the Latin "pagina," ["pangere," to fasten], from the Greek pégnuein, "to make fast," pégma, a "bookcase," &c. [cf: "pact," 66 peace," &c., and Sanskrit pacas, a band," Zend pacaiti, "bonds," pacu, "cattle"; and again Latin "pecus" "cattle," "pecunia" ""money," &c.] The Romans called this pellicle "liber," i.e., "bark," whence our word "library." But the book formed of strips of papyrus was not of the form with which we are now familiar, but a roll, generally single but often double, called by the Greeks kylindros, and by the Romans ' volumen " [from "volvere" cf: Russian valih, "a cylinder," Sanskrit, valayata, "sets rolling," and our "worm," "whelm," " wallow," ," "whelm," " 39.66 wile," willow," &c.], the term now wrongly applied by us to a separate section of one of our cuboid books. What we erroneously call a volume the Greeks called tomos [cf: "anatomy," "tonsure," &c., and again the Greek temenos, and Latin "temenum" or "templum," a temple "] ie., a "section" of a work of several "cylinders" or "rolls," the tome of the more accurate French. When about the 7th century parchment [from Pergamon] entirely superseded the use of papyrus, it was rolled up in the same way; and writings on parchment continued to be rolled up in this way long after the introduction of the separated "leaf" form of book; and, indeed, the use of "rolls," in the case of manuscript records, and legal documents, continues to this day. The modern form of the book has probably two origins. Ancient writings were not only on rocks, bricks, sheets of lead, or copper, papyrus, skins, but on planks or tablets of wood, as in China to this day [compare also the pata of the Hindus]. These tablets were cut from the trunk of a tree, called in Latin "codex," i.e., "caudex; a term the Romans applied to "account books," " recipe books," 'law books," and books generally; the "codex or, as we say, code, not having its leaves joined together, and rolled up from one end or both, as were those in the "volume," but arranged separately, as in the modern book. Two planks of wood, or two tablets of wood, ivory, or metal, hinged together, received, both among the Greeks and Romans, the name of diptycha, and the written [with style on wax] diptych was the first separately leaved book of our type. When the word "book" first took the place of such words as "volume," and "code," is not known. But it has now been made clear that it is the Saxon word boc; and it refers to the beech tree, the inner bark of which [bhoja-patra] is still used for writing in Thibet,

[ocr errors]

The "codicillus" was a diminutive tablet for writing memoranda. Cf: "libellus" and "cartula."

Lahoul, and other of the sub-Himalayan States.* The use of it for this purpose in India must be very ancient, for it is explicitly mentioned in one of the dramas of Kalidasa [?6th century, A.D.]. Like the palm leaves used in Southern India, the strips of bhoja-patra are not gummed together, and rolled up, but are laid separately one over the other, in ordered pages, the whole being bound between two thin boards, held together either by a wrapper of cotton or other cloth, or a turn or two of tape or twine, or by a peg, or sometimes a wide, gaping ring, on which the leaves were, one by one, turned away from the reader as he completes their perusal. Possibly the collected writings of the Saxons were preserved in a similar form. It would be handier than the Roman "codex," and this may serve to explain the supersession throughout the Teutonic countries of Europe of the Roman word "codex" by the Saxon word "book." The great evolution throughout Europe in the production of collected writings as books was due, not so much to the invention of printing, [“ Speculum Humanae Salvationis," 1438; in China block printing, 6th cent.: moveable types, 10th cent.], as to the invention [early 14th cent. in China, of cotton, 6th cent.] of linen paper, which in the binding naturally took, not the form of the "volume," but of the "code," with the Saxon name of "book."

GEORGE BIRDWOOD.

Obituary.

FIELD-MARSHAL SIR JOHN LINTORN SIMMONS, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.-Sir John Lintorn Arabin Simmons died at his residence, Hawley-house, Blackwater, Hants, on Saturday morning, 14th inst. He was born at Langford, Somersetshire, February 12, 1821, and after being educated at Elizabeth College, Guernsey, and at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, he obtained his first commission as a second Lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in December, 1837. His early service was in North America, and for the first portion of his professional career he devoted his attention largely to railway work, holding successively the appointment of Inspector of Railways; Secretary to the Railway Commission, and Secretary to the Railway Department of the Board of Trade. From 1854 to 1856 he was H.M.'s Commissioner with the Ottoman Army, and subsequently he took part in the siege of Sebastopol. From 1857 to 1865 he was Consul-General at Warsaw, and in the latter year he, commanded the Royal Engineers at Aldershot. From 1865 to 1868 he was

• This bark has various uses, and is regarded as sacred all over India. The jars of Ganges water, brought to this country by the illustrious Maharaja of Jepore, were covered over with it; and it should be thrown also into every funeral pyre of a twice-born Hindu.

Director of Military Engineers, Chatham, and in 1871 he published a pamphlet on "The Military Forces of Great Britain," which is specially referred to in the Obituary notice of the late Field-Marshal in The Times. From 1870 to 1875 he was Governor of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; Inspector-General of Fortifications from 1875 to 1880, and Governor of Malta from 1884 to 1888. Sir John Lintorn Simmons attained the rank of Field-Marshal in 1890. He was one of the senior members of the Society of Arts, having been elected so far back as the year 1853.

[blocks in formation]

In the summer of 1900, Mr. Bissiker and a party of friends crossed Iceland from the north-east to the south-west, traversing the comparatively little known volcanic region of the island. The present volume gives an account of the trip and of the country crossed. The information given will be very serviceable to any who contemplate a like excursion, which, according to Mr. Bissiker's account, can be made without much difficulty, and in a reasonable amount of time, if suitable preparations are made beforehand. The book is illustrated with a number of excellent photographs, taken by the author and his friends, and can be recommended to those interested in Iceland, or desiring information about it.

ALBRECHT DÜRER. By Lina Eckenstein. London: Duckworth and Co.

FREDERICK WALKER. By Clementina Black. London: Duckworth and Co.

These are two additional volumes of the series of little books on great artists, published by Messrs. Duckworth; previous volumes of which series have already been noticed. The subjects of these two books illustrate the wide extent of ground covered in the several volumes from the 15th to the 19th centuries. These monographs are fully illustrated.

[blocks in formation]

employed, and the arrangement of type and spacing. Complementary design upon the diploma, though it must be simple in style and suitable for a university document, is not strictly excluded; nor, subject to the conditions stated, are designs employing colour. Competitors may insert the arms of the University, or omit them, as seems most congruous with the design as a whole. Room for the seal of the University, measuring 2 inches in diameter, is to be left. Designs must be sent in to the Academic Registrar, University of London, S. W., from whom further particulars can be obtained, on or before April 1st, 1903.

MEETINGS OF THE SOCIETY.
ORDINARY MEETINGS.

Wednesday evenings, at Eight o'clock:FEBRUARY 25.-" Tonkin, Yunnan and Burma." By FRED. W. CAREY, late H.B.M.'s Acting-Consul at Szemao, China.

MARCH 4.-" Education in Holland." By J. C. MEDD.

MARCH II.-"Existing Laws, By-laws, and Regulations relating to Protection from Fire, with Criticisms and Suggestions." By T. BRICE PHILLIPS. (Fothergill Prize Essay.) SIR WILLIAM H. PREECE, K.C.B., F.R.S., will preside.

Dates to be hereafter announced:

"Oil Lighting by Incandescence." By ARTHUR KITSON.

"The Use of Electrical Energy in Workshops and Factories." By ALFRED C. EBORALL, M.I.E.E. "Modern Bec-Keeping." By WALTER FRANCIS REID, F.C.S.

"Preservation of the Species of Big Game in Africa." By E. NORTH BUXTON,

[ocr errors][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][merged small][ocr errors][merged small]
[blocks in formation]

PROF. J. A. FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., "Hertzian Wave Telegraphy in Theory and Practice." Four Lectures.

LECTURE I.-MARCH 2.- General Principles. The Theory of the Radiator or Aerial.-Introductory remarks-The production of an electric wave-The theory of the aerial or radiator-Comparison between organ pipes and Hertzian wave radiators—The propagation of an electric wave over earth or water surface -Fundamental and harmonic electrical oscillations in radiators-The Marconi radiator-The Braun radiator -The Slaby radiator-Oscillation transformers and multiplicators.

LECTURE II.-MARCH 9.-Transmitting Arrangements and Transmitters.-The various elements in a Hertzian wave transmitter-The induction coilVarious forms of coil-Various forms of breakAlternating current transformers-The primary circuit interruptor-The discharger and condensers-The simple radiator-Marconi's syntonic radiator-Braun's inductive system-Multiple transformation system— Production of powerful æther waves.

LECTURE III.-MARCH 16.-Receiving Arrangements and Receivers.-The function of the receiving aerial Electric wave detectors or responders — Classification of responders-Hughes's metallic microphone-Branly-Lodge coherer-Marconi receiver'Anticoherers-Magnetic receivers Marconi's magnetic receiver-Thermal and electrolytic respondersVarious forms of receiving arrangement.

LECTURE IV.-MARCH 23.-Syntonization and possible Improvements.—The problem of syntony— Time period of an electric circuit-Syntonic arrangements of Lodge, Marconi, Slaby, and others- The difficulties of the problem-Suggested substitute for syntony-Arrangements of Blondel and Anders Bull -Problems awaiting solution-The limitations and utilities of Hertzian wave telegraphy-The future of the new telegraphy.

W. WORBY BEAUMONT, Mem.Inst.C.E., "Mechanical Road Carriages." Four Lectures. April 27, May 4, 11, 18.

MEETING FOR THE ENSUING WEEK. MONDAY, FEB. 23...SOCIETY OF ARTS, John-street, Adelphi, W.C., 8 p.m. (Cantor Lectures.) Mr. Julius Hübner, "Paper Manufacture." (Lecture IV.)

Surveyors, 12, Great George-street, S.W., 8 p.m.
Mr. Henry Lovegrove, "Regulations for Protection
from Fire."

Geographical, Burlington gardens, W., & p.m.
Actuaries. Staples-inn Hall, Holborn, 5 p.m.
Camera Club, Charing-cross-road, W.C., 8 p.m.
Mr. T. Hepworth, **Some Curiosities of the
X-rays."

[ocr errors]

Medical, 11, Chandos-street, W., 8 p.m. TUESDAY, FEB. 24... Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., 5 p.m. Sir William Abney, Recent Advances in Photographic Science." (Lecture I.) Hellenic Studies, 22, Albermarle-street, W., 5 p.m. Medical and Chirurgical, 20, Hanover-square, W., 83 p.m.

Civil Engineers, 25, Great George-street, S.W.,
8 p.m.
Mr. George Frederick Zimmer, "Me-
chanical Handling of Material."

Photographic, 66, Russell-square, W.C., 8 p.m.
Anthropological, 3, Hanover-square, W., 8 p.m,
WEDNESDAY, FEB. 25...SOCIETY OF ARTS, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C., 8 p.m. Mr. Fred. W. Carey,
"Tonkin, Yunnan and Burma."
Geological, Burlington-house, W., 3 p.m.
British Astronomical, Sion College, Victoria-
embankment. E.C., 5 p.m.

Royal Society of Literature, 20, Hanover-square, W.,

8 p.m.

THURSDAY, FEB. 26...SOCIETY OF ARTS, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C., 4 p.m. (Indian Section.) Mr.
Jervoise Athelstane Baines, "Gleanings from the
Indian Census."

Royal, Burlington-house, W., 4 p.m.
Antiquaries, Burlington-house, W., 8 p.m.
Royal Institution, Albemarle - street, W., 5 p.m.
Prof. L. C. Miall, "Insect Contrivances." (Lec-
ture I.)
Electrical Engineers, 25, Great George-street, S.W.,
8 p.m. 1. Mr. J. Stöttner, "The Nernst Lamp."
2. Messrs. A. D. Constable and E. Fawssett,
"Distribution Losses in Electric Supply Systems."
3. Mr. M. Field, "A Study of the Phenomenon
of Resonance in Electric Circuit by the aid t
Oscillograms."

Camera Club, Charing-cross-road, W,C., 8} p.m. Mr. Carmichael Thomas, "Odds and Ends from an Editor's Portfolio." FRIDAY, FEB. 27... Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., 5 p.m. Weekly Meeting, 9 p.m. Prof. Adolph Liebmann, Perfumes: Natural and Artificial." Civil Engineers, 25, Great George-street, S.W., 8 pm. (Students' Meeting.) Mr. E. Falk, “The relative advantages of Single Screws, Twin Screws, and Triple Screws, for Marine Propulsion."

Clinical, 20, Hanover-square, W., 8 p.m.

Physical, Chemical Society's Rooms, Burling ton-house, W., 5 p.m.

SATURDAY, FEB. 28... Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., 3 p.m. Lord Rayleigh, "Light: its Origin and Nature." (Lecture I.)

« ElőzőTovább »