skill and tendency of Italian art which led to the gradual substitution of fresco for mosaic. He thought most present would agree with him that the very skill of the modern mosaist was a danger, that mosaic was fitted for decorative and especially not fitted for pictorial work, and that just so far as mosaic was applied to pictorial art, it would cease to be an art. Delicate modelling was out of place in mosaic, and was not wanted. Reference had also been made to adherence to a very specially prepared coloured cartoon, which left nothing to the workman. That might easily be a danger. The cartoon for the work in the church decorated by Sir Edward Burne-Jones was not the final scheme. Sir Edward at an early stage of the work made a very careful selection of such colours of tesseræ as he thought should be used in the whole scheme of work. He disagreed with previous speakers in their remarks as to the advantage of the push given to the work; he thought it would be mechanical as compared with the individual placing of the tesseræ. Expedition and cheapness were valuable, but they did not necessarily secure Art, and, he thought, had little to do with it. If Art was required in anything they must cease to work for the time being for either expedition or cheapness. Mr. R. F. CHISHOLM thought that mosaic should be treated from two points of view, external decoration and internal decoration. What might be good for internal use might be bad when used externally. As a durable material, he thought the flat surface on the exterior would be preferable to the in and out surface caused by the push-back. In regard to the question of setting the mosaic on to paper, he had put it on to wood, tracing the design on the wood, floating the tessera with cement on the back. The mosaic was put up much more easily in that way than when paper was used. It was quite possible that the ancients used wood, or some other substance, not paper. Mr. HAMILTON JACKSON thought the ancients did not use paper. He believed that on the plaster into which the tessera were set, they sketched the colour, because the tracings were still to be seen at a particular place, where they were discovered when the mosaics were being restored. Notwithstanding the difficulties there must have been in selecting the tessera and matching the colours, no doubt, in view of the fact that the design was traced in colours upon the plaster the mosaic was executed in situ. The difficulties connected with selecting the tint would be nothing like so great as imagined, because it would be found in all Greek mosiacs that never more than three or four tints for each colour were used; and yet a fine effect of colour was obtained. Now-a-days nothing but metallic tessera and vitreous paste was used; in the old days the greater part of the mosaic was done with natural stone, and the effect of the latter was very much less garish than the former, The garishness of present mosaics was due to the fact that nothing but vitreous paste was used, instead of following the wisdom of the ancients, and using the various marbles. He was in possession of a small piece of mosaic taken from St. Mark's, showing that the tessera were larger at the top than at the bottom, a point distinctly in favour of his contention that the work was done in situ. If it was done in situ it was an advantage to have tessera with a point; if not, there was not much advantage. He fully agreed with Mr. Burton's reference to the extreme importance of the mastic showing between the tessera; it gave a general tone to the whole mosaic, out of which the details of colour sparkled. Mr. PHILIP NEWMAN congratulated the author on the excellent discussion his paper had evoked. Evidently, there was a very divided opinion as to the method in which mosaic should be constructed. The question was whether mosaic should be made on the face or on the back. Arguments had been brought forward showing that in ancient times mosaic could not have been made on the back, because there was no paper. There was no paper also for the stained-glass workman, but he managed with a board, and he had no doubt that if the mosaist of those days worked at all he worked on a board. It was quite a mistake to suppose that in working on the face it was impossible to see in a church, because one was hampered by scaffolding and absence of light, and that one worked from a cartoon very much better. He thought Mr. Matthew Webb had disposed of that question by referring to Sir Edward Burne-Jones's practice of dealing with the cartoon. For the last three years he had been working in a church in the dark, because there was no electric light or gas, but he had to use paraffin lamps. The common-sense view of the as it occurred to him was to begin with the highest light and work down from that. He had followed that practice, and the result had pleased most people. He was perfectly convinced it was a far better way than working on a board or paper face down, because one could see what was being done and modify the mosaic. With the method of beginning with the highest tone success could be achieved in a way which could not be secured by working face. downwards on a board or a paper. matter On the motion of the CHAIRMAN, a vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Hamilton for his paper. Mr. HAMILTON, in reply, after thanking the meeting for the vote of thanks, said the Chairman had asked why the tessere should not be fixed in trays in cement? That was done in some cases. It was very suitable where mosaics were intended to cover flat surfaces, but they could not be fixed in such a way if used on curves. In regard to the thickness of the tessere, it was not, as a rule, as much as half an inch, being about a quarter of an inch, or a little more. The coloured tessera bore the test of time very well. Together with Mr. John Clayton, he visited the Albert Memorial, a short time ago, and found that although the golden tesseræ had suffered very considerably, the coloured tessera were as perfect as on the day they were fixed, about 30 years ago, exposed as they had been to the four winds of heaven at the height of 100 feet. It meant that the tessera were sufficiently deeply imbedded in the cement to remain there as long as the cement remained. The Chairman had alluded to schools being established in the country for mosaics. That, no doubt, would be a very excellent thing, but it looked very far into the future. Attempts had been made in different countries to establish schools of mosaic, but none of them had met with great success. There had always been mosaic ateliers in Rome for the purpose of doing the repairs necessary at St. Peter's, and similar institutions in Russia to repair many mosaic works there in existence. One would have imagined that those would have been very good schools; and yet the Government of Russia, when they wanted to decorate the mausoleum of Alexander II., sent to Venice to have the mosaics executed, and Cardinal Rampolla sent to Venice when he wished to have his mosaics executed in Rome. That did not look as if the schools were altogether successful. Mr. Day had stated that although a little push could be given he thought it was not often done. He thought mosaists would agree with him that it was much easier to make the surface of a mosaic rough than smooth. The tessera were placed in the moist cement, and unless they were beaten in very hard it was impossible to get anything like a smooth surface. It was an extremely difficult thing to get. When it was stated that the mosaics which were executed by the new method, were so flat, it was because the artist who had designed the cartoon had requested that they should be flat. For instance, the mosaics under the dome of St. Paul's were executed from the design of Mr. Alfred Stevens and Mr. Watts, and in making the background flat, his firm had followed the instructions of the artists. There was no flatness in the mosaics in the Houses of Parliament made from the cartoons of Sir Edward Poynter, but in that case again his firm followed the instructions of the artist. No instructions were given to make them flat, in fact, quite the other way. It was possible to make any surface one liked, and, of the two, it was easier to make a rough surface than a flat one. In regard to Mr. Burke's challenge as to what his authority was for making a certain statement, he thought if Mr. Burke would read the passage he would find it was written in very tentative language. If there was any authority which could be relied upon to show that the ancients did use the paper method, he would be very readily convinced. His firm did not cut tessera by machinery; it was the last thing they would think of doing. Mr. Newman had stated that he succeeded in making mosiacs by artificial light. That was, no doubt, possible, but there must be attendant difficulties, because it was obvious that a glass enamel would give out one tint in a yellow light and another in a blueish light. If the mosaist was working by artificial light he must know his colour very well indeed before he placed it in position, otherwise the colours would become somewhat mixed. The first point in connection with the new method was that there was always a good light by which to work. It had also been said that it was possible to see the effect of mosaic even when it was shrouded. He had been making some experiments on the Albert Meinorial, and it was so impossible to see from a distance, through the scaffolding, the effect of the experiments being made, that the panels had to be brought outside the scaffolding, in order to obtain a good idea of the mosaic. Correspondence, INDIAN INDUSTRIAL ART. It is disappointing to find the remarks of the Viceroy of India on native industrial art, copied in the Journal from the Times, have passed without comment from any of your numerous readers. Lord Curzon's almost despairing tone when speaking of the present position and outlook, engenders the hope that the persistent policy of conservation is to be abandoned, that beaureaucratic conservatism is to give place to the free and more vigorous policy of commercialism, that the arts and handicrafts of India will be henceforth developed on lines different to those favoured by the band of well-meaning, but, in my opinion, misguided enthusiasts who have hitherto held the reins. The Government of India has lavished honours on these gentlemen; and spared no expense in furthering their views, and the actual result, long since foretold, is Lord Curzon tells us: "The progressive deterioration and decline of all arts and handicrafts." With the salient features of the case, such as they are, could it have been otherwise? On the one hand, a small band of purists armed with a knowledge of the subject not altogether above suspicion, urging the native artizan to keep to his old forms; to continue to make teapots which will not hold hot water, and half-burnt rubbish of all kinds, because these articles exhibit the luscious blues of oxide of copper; shields which could not resist the poke of a spike; swords which would double up at the first thrust and a host of articles once useful, but now mere vehicles for artistic display ! On the other hand, that irresistible body, the public, demanding something useful for their money. The unfortunatė native artizan, thus torn in two, seeing meanwhile the actual markets flooded with English, American, German, and French goods, sought more lucrative employment, and left the solution of this impossible problem to less skilful hands. If commercialism alone had ruled the Government policy, terrible mistakes would have been made, but the manipulative skill, the real valuable element worth conserving, would have been preserved, and nothing but a curious form of conceit on the part of those urging conservation, justifies the assumption that the art instincts of the people, which produced such admirable works, would not, in process of time, again assert themselves, and more than recover lost ground. Here in England, in our midst, where a large section of the public understand and appreciate beautiful arts, it has been found impossible to conserve even the best of them. The beautiful art of etching on copper-plate succumbed to steel engraving, and this in its turn died before etching, when the process of steel facing copper was invented; and both these arts have now passed to give place to photographic processes. In the face of such facts as these the attempts to conserve native Indian art industries by æsthetical and poetical talk at art exhibitions seems eminently unpractical. I do not quite see why Lord Curzon alluded to "Tottenham-court-road furniture." Unless great changes have recently taken place, the Government houses in Calcutta, in Madras, and in Bombay, would be much improved by a few additions from Messrs. Maple or Shoolbred, and I can add with greater certainty, that, fortunately for the comfort of the inmates, neither one of these three houses contains a single purely native-made bedstead, or native-made chair; either such things do not exist, or Government sets a bad example. Neither can I understand Lord Curzon's allusion to " cheap Italian mosaic." Mosaic is one of the most ancient and beautiful arts the world has yet seen, it supplants no purely native art; it is admirably adapted to the manipulative skill of the native workman, being closely allied to the Florentine Art which has found so firm a footing in Agra; but it certainly has not the merit of being "cheap!" The cheapest piece of this work I executed in India, a floor measuring about 80 feet by 54 feet, cost, in English money, £7,600! R. F. CHISHOLM. General Notes. USE OF THE WORD PHONOGRAPH - In the number of the Journal for October 16th, 1863 (Vol. XI., p. 747), there is a notice of a machine called the electro-magnetic phonograph, "capable of being attached to pianofortes, organs, and other keyed in THOMSON RITCHIE will preside. FEBRUARY 18.-"Three-Colour Printing." By HARVEY DALZIEL. CARMICHAEL THOMAS will preside. FEBRUARY 25.-" Tonkin, Yunnan and Burma." By FRED. W. CAREY, late H.B.M.'s Acting-Consul at Szemao, China. Dates to be hereafter announced: "Existing Laws, By-laws, and Regulations relating to Protection from Fire, with Criticisms and Suggestions." By T. BRICE PHILLIPS. (Fothergill Prize Essay.) "Oil Lighting by Incandescence." By ARTHUR KITSON. "The Use of Electrical Energy in Workshops and Factories." BY ALFRED C. EBORALL, M.I.E.E. "Modern Bee-Keeping." By WALTER FRANCIS REID, F.C.S. "Education in Holland." By J. C. MEDD. "Preservation of the Species of Big Game in Africa." By E. NORTH BUXTON. "Fencing as an Art and an Historic Sport." By EGERTON CASTLE, M.A. "The River Thames and the Desecration of the Picturesque." By J. ASHBY. STERRY. MISS HANNAH FALCKE. SIR GEORGE BIRDWOOD, K.C.I.E., C.S.I., will preside. MAY 19. 4.30 p.m.-"The Mounting of a Play" (Stage Costumes and Accessories). By PERCY MACQUOID, R.I. Messrs. James Powell and Sons have kindly invited the Applied Art Section to visit the Whitefriars Glass Works, Tudor-street, E.C., on Tuesday evening, April 28th, from 7.30 to 10.30 p.m. A short paper on "Modern Table Glass" will be read by Mr. Harry Powell, and the processes of glass blowing will be explained in the glass house. The number of visitors will be limited to 100. Further particulars will be announced later on. Surveyors, 12, Great George-street, S. W., 8 p.m. Mr. William Woodward, "Some of the Difficulties which present themselves to the Architect and Surveyor Practicing in London" Geographical, University of London, Burlingtongardens, W., 8 p.m. London Institution, Finsbury-circus, E.C., 5 p.m. Dr. W. H. S. Aubrey, "Diseases and Doctors in the Olden Time." TUESDAY, FEB. 10...SOCIETY OF ARTS, John-street, Adelphi, W.C., 5 p.m. (Colonial Section.) Countess of Aberdeen, "Women in Canada." Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., 5 p.m. Professor Allan Macfadyen, "The Physiology of Digestion." (Lecture V.) Civil Engineers, 25, Great George-street, S.W., Anthropological, 3, Hanover-square, W., 8 p.m. Pharmaceutical, 17, Bloomsbury-square, W.C., 8 p.m. WEDNESDAY, FEB. 11...SOCIETY OF ARTS, John-street Adelphi, W.C., 8 p.m. Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, "The Port of London." Sanitary Institute, 74a, Margaret-street, W., 8 p.m. Discussion on "The present Shortage of Water available for Supply," to be opened by Mr. W. Whitaker. Japan Society, 20, Hanover-square, S.W., 8 p.m. Mr. R. A. McLean, "The Finances of Japan." Royal Literary Fund, 7, Adelphi- terrace, W.C., 3 p.m. Biblical Archæology, 37, Great Russell-street, THURSDAY, FEB. 12.... Royal, Burlington-house, W., 41 p.m. London Institution, Finsbury-circus, E.C., 6 p.m. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., 5 p.m. Electrical Engineers, 25, Great George-street, S.W., FRIDAY, FEB. 13...Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W., Astronomical, Burlington-house, 5 p.m. Annual Clinical, 20, Hanover-square, W., 83 p.m. SATURDAY, FEB. 14...Botanic, Inner Circle, Regent's-park, N.W., 34 p.m. Royal Institution, Albemarle street, W., 3 p.m. Mr. A. B. Walkley, "Dramatic Criticism." (Lecture II.) Journal of the Society of Arts, Proceedings of the Society. TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN CONNECTION WITH THE BOOK PRODUCING TRADES. BY DOUGLAS COCKERELL. BOOK PRODUCTION. On every hand we hear of the necessity for technical education. Education that is, that will fit men and women for the special work by which they are to earn their living. The necessity for this special education has arisen through the death of the ancient craft traditions, with the old apprenticeship system, brought about by the great development of machinery, and the consequent enlargement of workshops and factories, with the resulting division of labour. Formerly a boy was apprenticed to a master who was a skilled worker in his trade, and who, while working himself, could personally train his apprentice. It was just this personal element that was of such value, and that is now so commonly lacking in the training of young workmen. Now a boy is apprenticed to a trade, or, more commonly, not apprenticed at all. In either case he is too often left to pick up his trade as best he can, being kept long at some one process, as by that means his work becomes more quickly of value. Workmen are turned out highly skilled in the mechanical side of some one process of a trade, but with hardly any conception of the work as a whole, or with any ideal other than machine-like precision. When workshops were small, each workman, although he might specialise to some extent, would have a general knowledge of the whole of his craft, and of the relation which his part of the work bore to the work of his fellow workmen in the shop. As, moreover, crafts were formerly carried on in accordance with comparatively simple and slowly changing traditions, and with materials that had been |