or an alteration in the position of one or two arms, is best adapted for telegraphs. From the evidence given in an inquiry instituted for the purpose of ascertaining the merits of each method, it appears that the beams or arms are to be preferred; and an instrument of that kind is now employed by the British government. It may not be uninteresting to explain why the board signals have been rejected. It is scarcely necessary to refer to the fact, that the larger an object may be, the greater will be the distance at which it continues to be visible: every one is acquainted with this fact, as the result of his own observation. From this it might be supposed that as the shutter is larger than the beam, it would be better seen, and therefore be the preferable object for a telegraph. But the atmosphere is never perfectly transparent, and always, more or less, distorts an object by refraction, so that its image, when impressed upon the eye, is frequently ill defined, both in figure and position. This source of error is less evident when the object stands alone. An admirable illustration of the fact was given by a gentleman who was examined on the advantages of the two kinds of telegraphs. If the eye be fixed upon some letter in a printed page, I, for example, and the observer then withdraw his head from the page, the letter will soon appear so confused by the surrounding ones, as not to be easily distinguished; but if the same letter be printed on a plain sheet of paper, standing by itself, the eye will not only discern it at a much greater distance, but, as the image falls singly upon the eye, it will be easy to determine whether it is horizontal, or inclined to the right or the left. The shutter telegraph may be compared to the printed page, and the arm to the plain sheet with a single letter. The two instruments were carefully observed in their operation by the gentleman who superintended the Admiralty station during the whole of one winter, and he stated that when the boarded telegraph was so much enveloped in fog or mist as to prevent him from seeing which boards were open and which shut, the arm was distinctly visible. The telegraph now used is an upright post, having two arms, one on the top, and the other about half way down, both moving on a pivot, so that they may be fixed in any position. The meaning of these positions is made known to those who have the management of the telegraphic stations to which information is to be conveyed, but not to the intermediate localities. 66 When an alphabetical table is used, great care should be taken to compress the information into as few words as possible, and especially in climates where the atmosphere is liable to dense fogs. For want of this precaution a curious mistake was once made during the Peninsular war. The admiral at Plymouth, wishing to forward some news to London, by telegraph, commenced with the words, Wellington defeated," and before he could finish the sentence, a heavy fog came on and prevented further communication. This sentence reached the authorities in London, and, as may be supposed, caused great alarm; but in the evening the sentence was completed by the additional words, "the French." The sentence ought to have beenThe French defeated. Not unfrequently, for the purpose of saving time, and transmitting the information with a less number of positions, the vowels are omitted, as in the systems of shorthand. Signals are required at sea as well as on land, and especially when large fleets are placed under the command of one officer. It has been said that the unfortunate result of admiral Keppel's engagement was owing to a defective system of signals. The signal book used by our navy, from 1798 till 1803, contained four hundred sentences; but it frequently happened that the sentence required by the emergency of the moment, was not to be found in the book. The system now adopted was proposed by sir Home Popham; and although a great improvement upon that formerly in use, is not so perfect as is required by the service. Flags are used at sea instead of fixed telegraphs. A communication might he opened on land between distant places by speaking through tubes. The distance to which the sounds of the human voice may be conveyed in this manner is almost incredible; but there are many practical disadvantages in this mode of communication, among which, that of confiding the news or message to many persons, is not the least. H. THE ARAB RACE. In my intercourse with nations, I have observed that, like individuals, they are marked by distinctive peculiarities, well-defined, and highly interesting. And as in the case of individuals, the heart will attach itself to one rather than another, so it is with nations; and among all the nations I have met with, the Arab race is my favourite. But here it is necessary to state distinctly who the Arabs are. The people who have exercised control, for several centuries, over the countries where the Mohammedan religion prevails, are usually called Turks. But the Turks do not belong to the Arab race, although it might be so inferred from the language of travellers. The Turks, properly so called, are a northern race; they came originally from Northern Tartary, and the countries north and east of the Caspian sea. The Arabs, before the time of Mohammed, were confined to Arabia; there they had lived from the earliest times, contiguous to the other descendants of Abraham, and very frequent allusions are made to them in the Scriptures, particularly in the prophecies. Isaiah especially predicts the final ingathering of these sons of Ishmael in the following expressive strains:-"The multitude of camels shall cover thee, the dromedaries of Midian and Ephah; all they from Sheba shall come: they shall bring gold and incense; and they shall show forth the praises of the Lord. All the flocks of Kedar shall be gathered together unto thee, the rams of Nebaioth shall minister unto thee: they shall come up with acceptance on mine altar, and I will glorify the house of my glory," Isa. lx. 6, 7. Sheba, Kedar, and Nebaioth are all countries of Arabia. I consider it a great privilege to be called to labour among a people who are named in the prophecies, and of whom it is expressly foretold that they shall one day submit to the sceptre of Christ. When Mohammed arose, the enthusiasm and fanaticism of his religion kindled all their energies, and they poured forth as locusts upon all the surrounding countries, nor did they rest till they had overrun one half of the old world. On the east, they invaded and subdued Syria, Persia, Northern India, even to the Oxus, where their characteristics still remain. On the north, they rushed through Asia Minor, crossed the Dardanelles, and laid siege to Constantinople, which was then the capital of the Greek empire. In the west, they subdued Egypt and all Northern Africa to the Straits of Gibraltar, crossed there, founded a kingdom in Spain, and planted their power even on the mountains of Switzerland, and the frontiers of France. But the waves of this Saracen deluge receded, and now the Tigris is the eastern limit of the race. From the north they have passed back through Asia Minor; and a line stretched from the north-east corner of the Mediterranean to the Tigris bounds their wanderings in that direction. In Spain there is little left of them except a few traces of their language, and a mixture of their blood. In Africa, they still exist as a numerous and powerful people, and occupy all the north of it, from the extreme east to the extreme west, a greater distance than from the Atlantic to the Pacific shores of our own continent. In Syria, though there is a mixture of races, there is but one language, and that the Arabic. But to be a little more particular as to their civil and political condition. The Arabs are divided into two grand classes-the Hooderee, or resident Arabs, and the Bedawee, (Bedouin,) or wandering Arabs. The Bedawee is an inhabitant of the desert. He has flocks and herds, but he despises the cultivation of the soil. He is of the original Arab stock, a nomade, a wanderer. In the Bedawee, you see the primitive characteristics of the Ishmaelitish race. As a class, they are poor, indeed, but proud, constituting the nobility of the race, and boasting of a long line of noble ancestry, running farther back than any of the crowned heads of Europe. No potentate of any part of the world was ever more high minded, or more careful to avoid intermarriage with a plebeian than the Bedawee Arab. They pride themselves in being as free as the wind in all their movements over the desert. They roam about like the shifting sands, scorning to submit to the government of the neighbouring nations. Small tribes or fragments of tribes may be an exception to this remark, but it holds good of the mass. You may see their black tents scattered here and there over the hills of mount Lebanon, and tenanted by those who bear the name of some of the great tribes of the desert, from whom they have been separated by domestic feuds. But these broken hordes, though living thus, will not brook oppression. They detest the Turk, and hate the Russian; and on the least attempt to curb them, they fly into the deserts, and luxuriate in poverty and freedom. The other class are cultivators of the soil, and many of their original characteristics disappear. They are also more or less addicted to trade, and are more patient of subjection to other powers; as we found them tributary in Mesopotamia, Turkey, Syria, and Egypt. In the extreme west, as in Morocco, we find a native Arab kingdom, and in the south-east another in Muscat. they will pass you on to one that is friendly with them, and so you will go safely through." When Professor Robinson and myself were at Jerusalem, wishing to visit the region of the Dead Sea, which was infested by a band of Bedaweens, regarded as robbers, we consulted a native friend, and the next day he brought us the captain of the band for our guide. We visited Bethlehem, slept where Jacob slept at Bethel, and returned in safety. Again, as to the vindictiveness of the Bedaween, he is not naturally bloodthirsty. But he is jealous of his rights, and it has been considered, from time immemorial, a sacred duty to avenge the blood of a relative. It is this feeling which gives them a decided character for independence-a trait possessed even by menial servants, who stand up and raise their voice in the presence of their masters. This was shown when one of the Syrian bishops threatened to excommunicate those Arabs who came to hear us preach. The consequence was, that on the next sabbath our chapel was fuller than ever. There are several characteristics of the Arab race of great interest and importance to the missionary. Is it of no consequence to the missionary, whether the people among whom he labours are possessed of intelligence, and strong national character, or are sensual, sunk, degraded, and depraved? Nothing can be of more importance, inasmuch as we must depend mainly upon native agency to accomplish the great results we have in view. One trait in the Arab character of special interest is a nice That the Arab possesses great force sense of honour. Though there is good of character no one can doubt who is and bad among them, yet they all have acquainted with ancient history. But a high sense of honourable obligations. we see the same character developed It may not lead to the positive practice now. We see it in the contrast between of private virtue, yet it helps to prevent the Turks under the Sultan, and the open vice or gross wrongs. This trait Arabs under Mohammed Ali. See, shows itself in their universal hospi- too, how difficult it is for the French, tality. This has come down to them with all their tactics, to subdue the from of old. In their lofty poetry, brave Arab troops under Abd el Kader, which will bear a comparison with that in the province of Algiers. Another of any other people, they laud and ex- proof of their independence and bravery tol that Arab who consumes his sub- was shown by the Druse Arabs. A stance to entertain strangers. Nor can small party had rebelled and fled to a they speak of one in higher terms than volcanic region, called Lija, or the Asyto say, "The fire never goes out on lum, near which I have myself trahis kitchen hearth," but is always burn-velled. Here these Druses planted theming to cook for the stranger, his guest. Dismount from your horse in the desert, and enter the Arab's tent, and he will entertain you as Abraham did of old, if not with the fatted calf, yet with the lamb or kid, with milk and butter. For to be economical on the score of food is, with the Arabs, the height of meanness. This makes the Arab generous, and thus a feeling of sacredness attaches to the character of guest. Some few are treacherous; but if you want to pass alone through the deserts of Arabia, you will be told there is no difficulty; "We will pass you over to a tribe that is friendly with us, and selves, and forty thousand of the Pacha's troops could not dislodge them. A single Druse is said to have defended a defile against five hundred men. And then there is much to admire in the patience, perseverance, and endurance of the Arab. The Bedawee considers it degrading to cultivate the soil. He would rather wander in the desert. And how does he live. I can scarcely tell. He lives upon the most meagre fare. He will start in the morning with a few pounds of meal, and a small quantity of water. If he finds no more when that is gone, he will endure hunger and thirst, and the severest privations, rather than complain. I once encountered a party, who had been driven out of their territory, and were approaching Palestine in search of pasture for their flocks. So far as appeared, a few milch camels only furnished them food. I offered one of them a biscuit, and a cup of milk was returned; and they offered to exchange more. We gave them some barley which we had brought for our horses; and they ground it, husks and all, made it into a sort of dough on a sheep skin, buried it in the ashes, and baked it. When they took it out, it was burned as black as a coal; yet they ate it with a good relish. Bread baked in this way, with camel's dung for fuel, is ordinary fare. Sanctify this trait in their character, what devoted missionaries, what sufferers for Christ's sake, what noble martyrs would they make ! The Arabs are, besides, a very talented race. Soon after the establishment of the Caliphate of Bagdad, almost all the learning and literature of the world was among the Arabs. I have examined some of their books of science, mathematics, etc. with intense interest. It is curious to see how they will start from the same point and arrive at the same results, by a process entirely different from ours. Algebra owes its origin to them; the very name is Arabic. In astronomy they are equally renowned; and by their observations have corrected the calculations made by the Greeks at Alexandria. The Arabic names of several of the stars and constellations now stand upon our celestial globes. In philosophy, though misled by a false religion, they have shown capacity of the brightest order. Their histories I regard as beautiful models. They are simple narratives of facts, much after the style of the Hebrew, dispensing with reflections and inferences, and leaving the naked incidents to make their due impression on your mind. But pass from history to poetry, and you look as from earth to heaven. It is perhaps the most beautiful in the world. It is the soul of sublimity, and for the boldness of its metaphors, the beauty of its rhythm, and the brilliancy of its language, it cannot well be surpassed. In literature, no nation, of equal age, can probably boast more books in the native tongue; and I found a learned German translating a Bibliotheca in nine large vo lumes, containing only the names or titles of native Arab books. As to language, we love our own, and think very highly of its richness, force, and finish. But with all its copious treasures and polished elegance, it must yield the palm to the Arabic. This is so nicely adjusted in all its parts, that it reminds you of the frame of a building, with every mortice fitted to every tenon, and ours compared with it is little better than a patois. It is, moreover, the language of the Turk, the Tartar, the Malay, and the East Indian. Another trait in the Arab character is, that he is not disposed to infidelity. Just before going with Mr. Dwight to Armenia, I found it stated in the publication of a Jesuit missionary that the Armenian is religiously inclined. I have since studied the Arab character with reference to this point, and found it true also of them; for while their neighbours the Greeks grow up and go over to infidelity, you will scarcely find any infidels among the Arabs. Indeed, you cannot insult an Arab more than by calling him an infidel. The religion of the Arab now is Mohammedan, and the impostor had the wisdom to adapt his religion to their character; but an acquaintance with them will show that the Bedaween knows hardly any thing of his religion. Few of them at the present day can read the koran; and though it prescribes a penalty for those who do not say their prayers five times a day, scarcely one in a hundred knows enough to say his prayers. It is, however, a striking fact, that while all nominal Christians in the east have prayers in an unknown tongue, they have theirs in Arabic.-Rev. Eli Smith. WHEN half the year has passed by, and the sun flings a fiercer beam upon the earth; when July walks abroad attended with innumerable birds, flying insects and creeping things, a brighter colouring begins to be given, not only to the fruit and flowers, but also to the insect world. The rose-coloured beetle becomes common; the cicindela, in splendid green, flits before us; the stag beetle announces the approach of even with his drony hum; while in the mid-day beam there is a blaze of butterflies win- | nowing their way over brooks and ponds, gardens and garden walls, fields and hedges, and even high trees. There is the blue Argus butterfly in one direction, the orange-tip in another; while the tortoiseshell, the peacock, the marble, and the grand admiral, enliven the surrounding scene. Many a band of sunburned, redfaced youngsters cross our path in breathless haste, now up, now down, making desperate efforts with their hats, caps, and jackets, to capture the painted flutterers that, after all, generally escape from their pursuers. Well would it be, if we could all say with truth, "When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child: but when I became a man, I put away childish things,' 1 Cor. xiii. 11. So far is this, however, from being the case, that most of us, in one way or other, are pursuing butterflies all our days. If, reader, thou wouldst virtue prize, Leave then the painted butterflies And noble ends pursue. In continuation of our botanical remarks, the name of the thirteenth class, Polyandria, implies, that the flowers of the plants arranged in it have "many stamens," that is, the number is indefinite; but they are for the most part more than twenty, and invariably inserted not into the calyx, nor the corolla, but into the receptacle of the seed vessels. It contains seven orders. 1. Monogynia, with one pistil, as water lily and poppy. 2. Digynia, with two pistils, as peony. 3. Trigynia, with three pistils, as larkspur. 4. Tetragynia, with four pistils. 5. Pentagynia, with five pistils, as columbine. 6. Hexagynia, with six pistils, as water aloe. 7. Polygynia, with many pistils, as butter cup and anemone. It is consequently a very extensive class. The student may find in ponds, lakes, and slow running streams, an example of the first order of this class, in the magnificent white water-lily, (Nymphæa alba,) which is not uncommon in most parts of the three kingdoms; it being frequently introduced to ornament pieces of water, even when it does not grow wild. It blows profusely during the summer months, though it has no smell. Its large size renders it very showy. It closes up its flower in the evening, and expands again with the morning sun. The calyx has four leaves; the petals are numerous; and the berry of many truncated cells; the leaves are large, floating on the water, heart shaped, and entire. The lotus of the Nile, or blue water lily (N. cærulea) belongs to the same genus, and is celebrated by the ancients, from Herodotus downwards. Herodotus tells us, that the Egyptians, who live in the low marshy lands on the Nile, in order to obtain a more plentiful supply of food, have found out a resource from the lotus, which grows in the water during the inundation. They gather the lotus plants, and dry them in the sun, then pound what is obtained from the middle of the flower, which is like a poppy head, and make it into loaves, which they bake, The root of the lotus, Herodotus further says, is round, about the size of an apple, moderately sweet, and eatable. The additional beauty communicated to a pond, by the presence of the water lily, is striking. The broad leaves on the crystal surface, are so enlivened by the flowers, that a general cheerfulness prevails. It is as though nature, on her errand of beautifying the earth, had, as she passed from her profusion of flowers, playfully scattered here and there a handful on the waters. The white poppy (Papaver somniferum) belongs to this order, and is a native of Britain, and though not very common in a wild state, is frequent in gardens, particularly the double varieties, with various coloured flowers. It flowers in June and July, the blossom being large. The calyx has two large smooth leaves, which fall off some time after the flower has expanded; the corolla has (when single) four large wavy petals; the seeds, which are called maw seed in the shops, are numerous, very small, and greyish white. The seed heads, without the seeds, are employed in medicine to produce anodyne tinctures and infusions; and it is from this part, when the plant is growing, that the important drug opium is produced. Incisions are made in the seed head when half ripe, from which oozes out a thick juice that soon concretes, and forms the opium of commerce. By recent discoveries in chemistry, opium has been discovered to contain a number of principles which have considerably different qualities from the opium, in substance. The most valuable of these principles are morphia |