CUB

I. GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS.

YUBA is the largest and most populous of the West India islands. It lies directly south of Florida, the southeasternmost of the United States, being separated from it by the Strait of Florida, 100 miles in width. It is included between the meridians of 74° and 85° W. of Greenwich, and the parallels of 19° 40' and 23° 33' N. latitude. Its length from Cape Maisi on the east to Cape San Antonio on the west is 730 miles, while its breadth from north to south ranges from 25 miles in the neighbourhood of Havana to 100 miles in the eastern part of the island. Its area, including the Isle of Pines, which is under its jurisdiction, is 44,000 square miles. In its relief the island presents little appearance of unity of plan. West

of Havana it is traversed, in a direction parallel to its length, by a mountain range, the Sierra de los Organos, whose summits rise to altitudes of 2000 to 2500 feet,

culminating in Pan de Guagaibon, with the latter altitude. To the north and south of the crest of this range the land slopes to the coast, the southern slopes, known as Vuelta de Abajo, being the most celebrated tobacco lands of the island. The middle portion of the island consists mainly of low rolling plains, with shallow stream-valleys, rising in a few places into plateaux, which have been deeply dissected by erosion. The eastern portion of the island is mountainous, consisting in great part of a plateau, 2000 to 3000 feet high, deeply cut by streams, while closely bordering the southern coast from Santiago westward to Cape Cruz is Sierra Maestra, rising to an average altitude of 5000 feet, and culminating in Pico Turquino, said to be 8320 feet high. The rivers of Cuba are short, and except for the estuaries at their mouths, are not navigable. The only exception is the Rio Cauto, the largest river of the island, which drains a broad and fertile valley lying north of Sierra Maestra. This river has

a length of 150 miles, one-third of which is navigable for light-draught vessels. Much of the south coast of the island is bordered by swamps, which in the longitude of Matanzas expand to a great breadth, 75 by 30 miles, forming the Zapata Swamp. Much of the north coast, especially along the middle part of the island, is fringed by low mangrove-covered islets, which are in the main uninhabited. The harbours are numerous and excellent. Most of them are pouch-shaped, with narrow, often sinuous, entrances, expanding in the interior into broad lakes, completely sheltered. Of this type are the harbours of Havana, Santiago, Cienfuegos, Guantanamo, and many others.

Climate. The climate may be characterized as tropic and insular. At Havana, on the north coast, the mean annual temperature is 77° F., with a range of but 11° between the mean temperature of the warmest and the coldest months. Inland and upon the south coast the temperature is probably somewhat greater, the climate of the north coast being tempered by the north-east trades, the prevailing winds. The mean annual rainfall at Havana is

Longitude East 78° of Greenwich

76°

Maysi

74°

Walker & Cockerell sc.

52 inches, while inland it is probably greater, and upon the south coast less. About two-thirds of this precipitation falls between May and October, in what is known as the rainy season. The mean relative humidity at Havana is 75 per cent.

Minerals.-The mineral resources, so far as developed, are not of great importance. Iron ore of excellent quality is mined at several points between Santiago and Guantanamo, at the south base of Sierra Maestra. The ore, though abundant, is apparently float ore, mainly hæmatite, containing about 62 per cent. of iron. Most of the product has been shipped to the United States. A copper deposit in the neighbourhood of El Cobre, said to be of enormous value, was formerly extensively worked, but since 1868 mining upon it has ceased. Asphaltum has been found in several localities, and has for some time been used in the production of illuminating gas for the city of Santa Clara. Gold and silver were mined on a small scale in past times, but none is produced at present. There is, however, every probability that thorough prospecting will discover great mineral wealth.

Forests. The forests are extensive and comprise many valuable species, among which are mahogany, ebony, cedar, walnut, lignum-vitæ, oak, and many species of palm. The prevailing tree is the Cuban pine, which forms excellent lumber. It is estimated that half the area of the island is forested. Little use is at present made of the forest wealth, and its economic development awaits the construction of adequate means of transportation.

Government. For administrative purposes Cuba is divided into six provinces, which, named from the west eastwards, are Pinar del Rio, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, Puerto Principe, and Santiago. These are divided into municipal districts, or terminos, of which there were 132 at the time of the census of 1899. These, in turn, are subdivided into barrios, or wards, of which there were between 1100 and 1200. There are no chartered cities, and the population of cities here given has been obtained from that of the barrios, which are closely built. On May 20, 1902, the military occupation by the United States, which had been the form of government since the war with Spain, formally ceased, and a Cuban Republic was inaugurated under American protection; the local administration was already then in Cuban hands.

Population. The population in 1899, according to the census, was 1,572,797. In 1887 it was 1,631,687, and in 1877, 1,509,291. In the twelve years preceding the latest census there was an actual diminution of population of 58,890, a result of the civil war which opened in 1895. This measures, however, only a part of the loss consequent upon the since the population doubtless increased up to 1895. Allowing for this increase, the loss was probably about 200,000. The average number of inhabitants to a square mile was 36. The following table gives the population and its density by provinces :

war,

The principal cities, with their population in 1899, are as follows:-Havana, the capital of Cuba and of Havana province, population 235,981; Santiago, on the south coast, the capital of Santiago province, population 43,090; Matanzas, on the north coast, the capital of Matanzas province, population 36,374; Cienfuegos, in Santa Clara province, on the south coast, population 30,038; Puerto Principe, situated in the interior, the capital of the province of the same name, population 25,102; Cardenas, on the north coast in Matanzas province, population 21,940; Manzanillo, on the south coast, in Santiago

province, population 14,464; Guanabacoa, in Havana province, population, 13,965; Santa Clara, in the interior, the capital of Santa Clara province, population 13,763; Sagua la Grande, on the north coast, in Santa Clara province, population 12,728; Sancti Spiritus, in Santa Clara province, population 12,696; Regla, a suburb of Havana, population 11,363; and Trinidad, on the north coast in Santa Clara province, population 11,120. As to sex, the population was divided in the proportions of 51.8 per cent. males and 48.2 per cent. females, the disproportion being due to immigration.

As to race, the whites constituted nearly 68 per cent., or more than two-thirds, and the coloured, including negroes, persons of mixed blood, and Chinese, 32 per cent. The following table gives the proportions of the races in the several provinces :—

As in

The proportion of coloured has been diminishing since 1841, when it was 58.5 per cent. The proportion of persons of alien birth was 9 per cent. of the population, and three-fourths of these were from Spain, China and Africa contributing largely to the remainder. other countries, the foreign-born were proportionately more numerous in the cities than in the country, nearly one-third of this element being found in the city of Havana. During the last six months of 1900 there were 15,810 immigrants, of whom 12,676 came from Spain, 979 from the United States, and 923 from Mexico. The conjugal condition of the people was in certain respects peculiar. Of the total population in 1899 only 15.7 per Besides these, 8.4 cent. were lawfully married. per cent. of the population were living together by mutual consent, in more or less permanent unions. The proportion of married, even with the addition of those in these consensual unions, was much smaller than in Europe. Consensual unions were much more common among the coloured than among the whites.

Of the population over ten years of age, 57 per cent. were unable to read, the proportions of illiterates in the two races being, whites 49.2 per cent., and coloured 72 per cent. The public school system, which under Spanish régime existed mainly on paper, has been put into effective operation under American administration. In 1899 the census reported that only 15.7 per cent. of the children of school age attended school, the proportion of whites being somewhat greater than that of coloured. The number of schools was 1510, the number of public and private schools being about equal. The number of teachers was 2665. In 1901 there were 3567 public schools, 3608 teachers, and 172,273 enrolled scholars.

Of the population over ten years of age, 51.2 per cent. were engaged in gainful occupations. The wage-earners were distributed as follows among the great groups of occupations :

There are no statistics of manufactures available, but it is well known that, aside from sugar mills and cigar factories, this branch of industry is of little importance.

Of

Agriculture.-In 1899 there were 60,711 farms and plantations, comprising an area of 8,761,600 acres. Of this, 901,100 acres were under cultivation, or only 3.2 per cent. of the area of Cuba. The average size of farm was 144 acres, a little larger than in the United States; and the average area cultivated per farm was 15 acres. the cultivated area 43.5 per cent. was owned by the occupants, and 56.5 per cent. rented or worked on shares. Again, 84.9 per cent. was occupied by whites, and only 15.1 per cent. by coloured, or in mixed occupancy of white and coloured.

The following table shows the proportion of the cultivated area which was planted in each of the principal crops, this being the only measure of products which the census furnishes :

Sugar cane.

Sweet potatoes Tobacco

Bananas

Indian corn

Malangas

Yucca.

Coffee.

Cocoanuts Cocoa.

:

Per cent. of Cultivated Area

47.3

11.3

9.3

8.6

7.3

3.4

3.2

1.6

1.4

1.4

The mills of Cuba numbered 207, with a total capacity of 8,754,192 arrobas of cane, and a daily output of 61,407 bags of 200 pounds each of sugar. In connexion with these mills were 85 stills, with a daily capacity of 161,751 gallons of rum.

Rail and Road.-Means of transportation are scanty. Outside of the three smallest western provinces and the neighbourhood of large cities there is not a good road in Cuba, and many of the good roads are impassable in wet weather. There are about 1100 miles of railway, most of which are in Havana, Matanzas, and the western part of Santa Clara provinces. These railways are for the most part poorly constructed and scantily equipped.

Commerce.-The following figures epitomize the commerce of the island in 1899 and 1900:

a free pardon for all who had taken part in the revolt were among the stipulations agreed upon, and the abolition of slavery was decreed, although this measure only took full effect in 1886. In the autumn of 1878 General Campos met the leaders of the insurrection at Zanjon; a treaty was signed embodying the various promises and conditions. It was the non-fulfilment of the terms of this convention (commonly called "El Pacto de Zanjon ") which paved the way for the insurrection organized by José Marti in 1895. For all practical purposes there was no reform in administrative methods after the Convention of Zanjon. The island continued, as formerly, to be a rich field reserved for Spanish officialdom. Corruption became more pronounced. Cubans, unless entirely pro-Spanish, were given no share in the Government, although their standard of intelligence was quite equal to, if not higher than, that of the majority of Spaniards in similar conditions of life. In these circumstances the natives bitterly resented the attitude of the Spaniards, and the estrangement between the two peoples became more marked as time went on. In 1886 a number of young students were accused of writing some derogatory The verses on the tombstone of a high Spanish official. supposed ringleaders were arrested, and three of them were condemned to death and shot. It is difficult to find any excuse for this act, and it served to deepen into hatred and fear the hostility of a large section of the population to Spanish authority. Attempts at revolt were occasionally made, but without success, owing to prompt and drastic measures taken by the Government and to the lack of organization on the part of the Cubans. Meanwhile the economic condition of the island was undergoing great changes. The crisis in the sugar trade in 1883, and the fall in prices in consequence of overproduction, seriously threatened the main industry. situation was further complicated by the abolition of slavery, which involved severe pecuniary losses to the slave-owners. The energy shown by the people of Cuba at this crisis in their affairs is deserving of the highest praise. The old factories were abandoned and great central sugar-houses erected where the process of converting the cane juice into sugar could be more cheaply effected. The newest machinery was imported and immense areas of new cane fields were planted. estates were mortgaged to obtain the money for these changes, and so by hard work and intelligent application the principal source of wealth was saved from annihilation and brought round to a comparatively flourishing condition. During this critical period the Spanish Government gave no helping hand. Heavy duties were levied upon Cuban products, although Spanish goods entering the island were allowed important reductions as compared with merchandise from other countries. Cuba was saddled with a gold debt of $162,849,625 for bonds issued in Spain to defray military expenses and other charges from which the island derived no benefit. The population of 1,500,000 souls was called upon to find a revenue of £5,240,000 sterling to meet the service of the bonds issued in Spain and to cover the expense of the Spanish administration of the island. In reality they paid much more than this amount, on account of the extortions systematically practised by the officials. The Cubans bitterly resented the attitude of Spain, but their protests were

The

The

un

heeded. Between the years 1889 and 1893 the sugar industry increased rapidly. A treaty with the United States allowing considerable advantages to sugars of Cuban origin was a substantial aid to the situation, and in the season 1893-94 the output amounted to 1,023,719 tons. Prices during this period of expansion had been fairly remunerative. In 1895, however, a change came for the

worse.

The treaty with the United States was denounced, and Cuban sugars entered only on the same terms as those from other foreign countries. The value of sugar all over the world fell steadily until it reached a price which left little, if any, profit to the producer. The factory owners, who had not had time to recoup themselves for the money which they had laid out in improvements, began to feel the strain severely, and numbers of the cane-growers abandoned their fields. As the economic crisis developed, real misery and hardship began to be felt in nearly every district.

or

The Government of Spain so far recognized the danger of the situation as to consider seriously the acceptance of some measure of reform. Señor Maura brought forward in the Cortes a project for restricted home rule for Cuba, but after long discussion it was rejected. A scheme of modified local government was then introduced by Señor Abarzuza and accepted; but this acceptance did not entail its immediate application to Cuba and Porto Rico, as the general public was induced to believe would be the case. Indeed, the measure was never applied to the Spanish West Indian colonies, being delayed on one excuse another until the condition of Cuba had become such that the concessions proposed were inadequate. When conciliatory measures were tried in the island, a different law of constitution was promulgated. The opinion generally expressed in Cuba was that if Señor Abarzuza's proposals had been immediately put in force, the insurrection would not have broken out in 1895, or in any case would not have received the widespread sympathy which was accorded to it. Meanwhile a powerful factor was at work, the strength of which was too lightly estimated by the Spaniards. This was in the person of José Marti, a clever and intelligent man with the gift of oratory to aid him in his work. Love of Cuba, hatred of Spain, and a desire to see the island freed from Spanish domination led him to devote his whole life to pleading for the Cuban cause, and he ended by dying for the country he loved so well, shot down soon after the insurrection broke out. Marti began his work of organization after the Zanjon Convention had been signed. Meetings were held from time to time at Key West, Tampa, and all other places where Cuban colonies were established, and funds were collected for the purchase of arms and ammunition. Ultimately Marti decided to strike before the proposed Abarzuza reforms could be promulgated and the hostility of the Cubans towards Spain be in any degree modified by the concessions granted.

José Marti had made plans for a simultaneous rising in the provinces of Santiago and Matanzas. In the former Outbreak province 400 persons assembled in the neighbourof the hood of Yara, and on February 23, 1895, took up insurrec- arms under the leadership of Jésus Rabi. The

tion.

movement in Matanzas was attempted on the same day, but was mismanaged at the start and suppressed for the moment. The Government from the first underestimated the sympathy of the public with the outbreak, and declared that it was nothing more than an attempt by a few bandits to commit robbery and outrage under the guise of patriotism. How fallacious was this reasoning soon became apparent from the eagerness shown by people of all classes in watching the progress of events in Santiago. Perhaps the most significant fact in connexion with the

revolt was that it was not a pronunciamiento of any particular leaders, but the spontaneous uprising of people belonging to the lower classes, without distinction of colour. At the outset the whites were in the minority, hence the mistaken opinion was almost invariably held outside Cuba that the trouble was one of negroes against white men. At the beginning of 1895 Spain had in Cuba a garrison of some 17,000 men, a force amply sufficient to have crushed the revolutionary movement had it been energetically handled. getically handled. The officials, however, made hardly any effort to disperse the rebels, whose ranks were rapidly increasing, and before the end of March 1895 it was evident that serious trouble was in store for Spain. The Madrid Government raised the garrison of Cuba to a strength of 30,000, and appointed General Martinez Campos as CaptainGeneral of the island. After his arrival in Cuba in April, General Campos found that his hands were tied by the many restrictions imposed from home, and that he would not be permitted to declare in force the Abarzuza reforms until the insurrection was suppressed. The Spanish troops were in a demoralized condition, and the character of the eastern portion of Cuba made military operations difficult.

On April 21, Antonio Maceo, who afterwards played so important a part in the revolt, landed at Duabi, and shortly afterwards was followed by Maximo Gomez, accompanied by Marti. Maceo was a mulatto, and his presence in Cuba at once drew many additional recruits to the insurgent ranks from the coloured population. Maximo Gomez was a native of San Domingo, and had served in the Spanish army during the campaign in that island. Both Gomez and Maceo had taken part in the insurrection of 1868-78, and won for themselves a considerable amount of prestige. To Gomez was confided the post of Commander-in-Chief of the rebel forces, while Maceo was appointed next to him in rank. Marti prepared to return to New York to procure further supplies of arms and ammunition, but on his way to the seacoast he was killed in a skirmish with Spanish troops. His death was a severe blow to the Cuban cause, but the progress of the rebellion continued unchecked. In every town in Cuba secret committees were formed to aid the revolt, and by the month of August Gomez and Maceo had under their orders some 4000 men, and the area of the movement had extended over the whole of the province of Santiago and the greater part of Puerto Principe. Realizing the gravity of the situation, the Captain-General explained to the home Government that it would be necessary to occupy every province of the island and vigorously attack the insurgents in the field. In response to his demand for reinforcements, troops were poured into the island, but they consisted mainly of young and raw recruits, and sickness set in among them to an alarming extent. The wet season, furthermore, rendered any active operations almost impossible. At the close of 1895 the Spanish army in Cuba, including the volunteers and irregular cavalry under arms, numbered 100,000 men. The rebel forces had also steadily increased, and amounted to 10,000, but they were very imperfectly supplied with arms and ammunition.

The condition of the Spanish army was far from satisfactory. The men were obedient and cheerful, but were young, inexperienced, unacclimatized, poorly fed, and badly looked after. No attempt was made to instruct officers or men in their duties, or to improve the musketry practice. The officers were generally ignorant of the topography of the island, and took no trouble to make proper reconnaissances. Such maps as were compiled by order of the Government were so inaccurate as to be of small practical value. In these circumstances it is no wonder that the insurgents were able to elude pursuit and constantly to lead the Spanish troops into carefully prepared S. III. 39

ambushes. The organization of the insurrection developed rapidly. A provisional Government was formed, and the Marquez de Cisneros was named President of the Cuban Republic. The island was divided into districts, and a civilian appointed prefect of each one. Certain taxes were levied by these rebel authorities, non-payment being punished by destruction of the plantation buildings or crops of standing cane and the seizure of cattle and other live stock. Meanwhile the Cuban Junta in New York continued to collect subscriptions and arrange for further supplies of arms.

In January 1896 the insurgent leaders determined to carry the war into the districts in the immediate vicinity of Havana, and so paralyze the industrial life of the island. The Spaniards gave little heed to the rumours concerning the movement, and failed to perceive that the majority of the population sympathized with the rebels. As the insurgents advanced, they burned all the cane-fields and destroyed valuable property, on the ground that as long as industry continued to flourish in Cuba, the Spanish Government could find the money to maintain a large army to operate against the Cubans, but that once the industrial life was stopped, Spain would be unable to bear the burden and would then withdraw her troops. Accordingly, a vast sheet of flame from the burning cane-fields marked the advance of the insurgents. Near Coliseo, in the province of Matanzas, General Campos made his last effort to stem the onward movement with 10,000 men, but the insurgents eluded him and invaded the rich Western Provinces. The town of Havana was thrown into a state of excitement, and Marshal Campos was relieved of his command.

General Weyler sent out.

At the opening of 1896 there were still many Cubans in sympathy with, or actively engaged in, the insurrection who would have been satisfied with a liberal measure of home rule, and this aspect of the case was duly impressed upon the Spanish Government, but to no purpose. Meanwhile in the United States the drift of feeling was distinctly in favour of the insurgents, and this had the effect of making Spain more determined than ever to crush the revolt by force of arms, and the task was entrusted to General Weyler, who had a great reputation for energy and relentless severity. Large reinforcements were sent to the island from Spain, and in a few months the army of occupation amounted to 185,000 regular troops, 20,000 guerillas, and 30,000 volunteers. Antonio Maceo, with some 4000 insurgents, had taken up his position in the mountains of Pinar del Rio, and continually harried the Spanish garrisons. In order to prevent him from recrossing towards the eastern provinces and again joining hands with Gomez, a cordon of troops was stationed from north to south of the island between Mariel and Majana, trenches were thrown up, entanglements laid down, and blockhouses erected at short intervals. A corps of 20,000 men was stationed on this trocha or military cordon, and 10,000 troops were despatched to Pinar del Rio to march through the province and force a fight with the.followers of Maceo whenever possible. These measures did not give the results expected. The rainy season brought sickness among the troops on the trocha, and many thousands died of fever, dysentery, and exposure. The columns sent out in Pinar del Rio were exhausted by long marches, and invariably found the mountain passes difficult of approach and strongly guarded by the rebels. Foiled in his attempt to bring about a general engagement, General Weyler issued an order for the "concentration" of the whole rural population in the fortified towns, with a view to prevent the insurgents from obtaining supplies from the country people with them. Some 600,000 people, chiefly women and children, were thus driven from their

homes and collected in the towns, where they had no means of gaining a living, and where no due provision had been made for their subsistence. With very few exceptions the men joined the insurrection, and the women and children suffered great privations.

Of

In June 1896 a vessel called the Competitor was surprised and captured on the north coast of Pinar del Rio just after landing a cargo of arms and ammuni- American tion for Maceo. The crew, with one exception, grievances were United States citizens. They were tried by against a military tribunal and sentenced to be shot. Spain. Under the treaties existing between Spain and the United States it was specially provided that unless American citizens were captured with arms in their hands against the Spanish authority, they could only be arraigned before the ordinary tribunals. The United States Government insisted that these men were not captured with arms in their hands within the meaning of the treaty, and that the summary trial accorded them was illegal. The Spanish authorities maintained that they had right on their side, but at the last moment gave way and ordered a fresh trial by ordinary process. The men were in prison for a long period, but were finally released and sent out of the island. Here the affair nominally ended, but bad blood was created between the two nations. One of the most difficult political questions with which General Weyler was confronted was the treatment of United States citizens in Cuba. persons born in the United States there were only a limited number in the island, but of Cubans who had become naturalized citizens of the United States there were some 20,000, and it was this latter class who occasioned friction. It was a common practice for Cubans to reside a sufficient length of time in the United States to obtain naturalization papers, then to return to Cuba and, whenever in trouble, to call upon the United States authorities for assistance. Many of these naturalized citizens who were directly or indirectly implicated in the revolt only owed their immunity from imprisonment to the fact that their arrest would have entailed diplomatic complications with the United States. Occasionally a man was arrested who claimed to be an American citizen; he could talk no language but Spanish, was born in Cuba, and had not been near his adopted country for twenty years; nevertheless he was entitled to and received the active intervention of the United States Consul-General in Havana. Time after time the Spanish authorities were forced to give way to the protests sent from Washington, and each succeeding incident increased the bitterly hostile feeling of the Spaniards towards the United States.

In July 1896, José Maceo, who commanded the rebels in the eastern part of the island, was killed in a skirmish. This loss to the cause was more than compensated for by the landing of Calixto Garcia, a veteran of the former revolt, who became one of the most prominent of the rebel leaders. Garcia had studied military tactics and understood the weak points of the Spanish character. Many members of families of good social standing who had hesitated to serve under Gomez or Maceo, joined Garcia in the field, and the movement in Santiago and Puerto Principe was further strengthened by the landing of arms and ammunition sent by the Cuban Junta in New York. In the month of August an attempt was made to dislodge Antonio Maceo from the mountain heights near Cacarajicara, in the province of Pinar del Rio. The officer commanding the Spanish troops, General Echague, was severely wounded, and the Spanish loss was heavy. After hard fighting, the insurgents were forced to retire farther into the mountain fastnesses. In November the strength of the insurrection in Pinar del Rio and the centre of the island showed no sign of exhaustion, and General Weyler